Cameroon, Central African Republic, and Congo
The Biodiversity Support Program (BSP)'s Biodiversity Analysis for Africa (BAA) project was initiated in 1991. The project's goal was to identify and characterize the strategies and tools that can successfully advance the conservation of biodiversity while improving human health and welfare. As part of the project, BSP provided assistance to selected activities that explored key issues and innovative techniques for biodiversity conservation in Africa, particularly targeting different monitoring and evaluation techniques. Activities were selected for funding using the goals of building a base of knowledge on biodiversity and contributing to conservation and development efforts in Africa. Projects that were part of ongoing activities, designed and implemented by Africans, and designed to benefit or harmoniously exist with local populations were given high priority. The first phase of the BAA project concluded with the publication of African Biodiversity: Foundation for the Future in 1993 (see www.BSPonline.org). In this report, lessons learned from the BAA grants and input from the African Biodiversity Advisory Group were used to outline an action program to assist decision-makers in their efforts to conserve Africa's biodiversity while promoting sustainable development. It identifies numerous recommendations for action to slow the loss of biodiversity in Africa and to make development more sustainable.
The following are abstracts of each of the BAA grants, listed in alphabetical order based on country of activity, as well as contact information for obtaining additional information about the projects.
Involvement of the Population Bordering the Kabore Tambi National Park Towards Sustainable Management of the Biological Resources
Years of Study: 1993-1996
Implementor: Fondation des Amis de la Terre (NATURAMA)
Contact Person: Adama Nana
The region around the Kaboré Tambi National Park was the focus for a study conducted by NATURAMA and designed to promote the regeneration and participatory development of the park, while improving living conditions for the people living by the river. The project focused on villages in the Zoundwéogo, Boulgou, and Nahouri provinces.
The first year of the project consisted mostly of information-gathering—collecting information about the park and about the populations nearby, as well as laying the groundwork for partnerships with the villages. The second and third years 1) reinforced the involvement of the 17 villages, 2) initiated in certain villages a series of pilot programs which carried out agenda developed in village meetings and seminars, 3) reinforced environmental education in schools and distributed a monthly newsletter, 4) established a monitoring and evaluation system implemented by participants, and 5) researched mechanisms to ensure that the achievements of the project was lasting.
During the third year of the project, staff observed that the villagers had strong interest in conserving the park's natural resources. The environmental education program was consolidated and enlarged. Discussions at village meetings were relevant and directed. The researchers observed that their status as a non-governmental organization enabled freer discussions.
CAMEROON, CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC AND CONGO
An Integrated Monitoring Program for Trans-Boundary Forest Conservation and Management in Congo, Cameroon, and Central African Republic.
Years of Study: 1994-1996
Implementor: Wildlife Conservation Society, in collaboration with World Wildlife Fund
Contact Person: Amy Vedder
The project was designed to develop a monitoring and evaluation protocol to be used by two non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and their forest management counterparts in a tri-national protected area. Repeatable, comparable procedures were developed that integrated conservation and development projects (ICDPs) could use to generate baseline socio-economic and biological data. In addition, monitoring schemes were designed and initiated to assess changes in human, plant, and animal communities over time and a cadre of local people were trained to collect the data needed for management of this monitoring scheme.
The procedures developed involved monitoring a variety of socio-economic and biological factors. To monitor socio-economic factors, population censuses were designed and conducted, human impact on the protected area was assessed, and agricultural activity was documented. The variables used in the census were determined at the workshop, and census sheets were designed. Poaching camps were also mapped. Spot surveys of bushmeat availability in markets, hunting efficiency studies and traffic studies were used to measure human impact. Aerial monitoring was conducted in the Nouabalé-Ndoki site to assess the area of land under cultivation. To create a scheme for biological monitoring, forest clearings and human impacts were measured. Aerial surveys of these bais or clearings was supplemented with walking surveys and transect data collection. Transects were also used in assessing human impact as was the mapping of logging roads and hunting camps.
The project determined that similar priorities exist for Congo, Cameroon, and the Central African Republic; however, experience in monitoring and level of funding varies from nation to nation. Periodic refinement of the monitoring scheme, promotion of on-site training, organization of workshops, coordination of data analysis, and management decisions were all key to maintaining a tri-national integrated monitoring program.
Strategic Planning Mission for the Creation of a Protected Area in the Lobeke Region of Southeastern Cameroon: Assessment of Timber Exploitation, Safari Hunting and Preliminary Vegetation Analysis
Years of Study: 1994-1996
Implementor: Wildlife Conservation Society
Contact Person: Amy Vedder
A strategic planning mission was undertaken by an interdisciplinary team to reinvigorate the strategic planning process for a protected area in the Lobeke region of southeast Cameroon. The mission included a forest ecologist and an anthropologist. While the government of Cameroon has long recognized the importance of Lobeke for the conservation of elephant (Loxodonta africana) and other large mammals, prior to this mission the creation of a protected area seemed stalled. The team was able to renew interest and help court possible funding sources for the creation of a protected area.
Forest vegetation was analyzed and partial species lists compiled for different forest types. Forest regeneration post-logging was assessed and showed that Triplochiton scleroxylon or Ayous, a species not extracted from the regenerating concession, was well represented in the pole and small tree size classes and is believed to be a response to logging. Other timber species were also found to be regenerating. Although extreme caution should be taken in extrapolating impressions of this quick assessment, it does appear that there is hope for sustainable forestry and that managed forest could serve as a buffer to an integral conservation area. One formidable obstacle is commercial hunting for export of bushmeat. Sport hunting is prevalent in the Lobeke region and has put hunters in conflict with local people. If sport hunting is managed, it could play a role in a multiple use conservation area. Parrot trapping was observed in the area and deemed inappropriate for a conservation area.
The researchers deteremined that a planning process must continue for a protected area within the Lobeke region. Many partners, including local people, were ready to participate. It was strongly urged that the Cameroon Government continue its moratorium on allocating timber concessions in the area and that an area of approximately 100,000 ha, encompassing the proposed 40,000 ha forest reserve and the forest east towards the Sangha river, be put off limits for timber exploitation indefinitely.
Environmental Impact Assessment and Biodiversity: The Case of Small-Scale Irrigation Schemes in Kenya
Year of study: 1996
Implementor: Advanced Center for Environmental Studies
Contact Person: Mohamed Khalil, Director
An environmental impact assessment of small-scale irrigation development in the Tharaka-Nithi District in Meru, Kenya, was undertaken with particular emphasis on how irrigation schemes affected the diversity of indigenous food crops. Through market visits and interviews with district farmers, Dr. Khalil researched trends in indigenous food crop diversity. He obtained river water quality and soil status information from the Ministry of Water Development and the Ministry of Agriculture. The market visits clearly illustrated a declining presence of indigenous species and a new plentitude of exotic species. The interviews with farmers confirmed this trend. Not only were indigenous plant varietals on the decline, but aquatic animals were also disappearing. The use of small-scale irrigation schemes contributed greatly to the loss of indigenous crop species diversity as well as biodiversity in general. International funding and demand for exotic crops pushed farmers to grow exotic species which required greater inputs of agrochemicals and which degraded the land more rapidly; farmers cultivating indigenous species had better crop yields and saw more organisms. Khalil concluded that small-scale irrigation schemes clearly had a deleterious effect on biodiversity by decreasing the amount of indigenous crop species, by adding harmful chemicals to the soil and water, and by degrading the overall soil quality.
Biodiversity and Economic Change: A Review
Year(s) of study: 1994
Implementor: Advanced Center for Environmental Studies
Contact Person: Mohamed Khalil, Director
Biodiversity and Economic Change addresses five issues: 1) the concept of progress and its subordination of biodiversity, 2) the rapid surge of interest in biodiversity and its economic implications, 3) the value of biodiversity, 4) the effects of biotechnology on biodiversity and intellectual property rights, and 5) policy recommendations and areas for further research.
Recommendations are the following:
Women as Conservators of Medicinal Plants, Herbs, and Indigenous Forms of Healing Knowledge: Gendering Biodiversity
Implementor: Patricia McFadden
Patricia McFadden originally intended to study the agricultural policies of Kenya from the colonial period to the present, and the effect of these policies on the biodiversity of medicinal plants and herbs. Instead, she discusses what she terms the lack of "analysis/understanding of the relationship between women's healing roles and practices, and the custodial role they play in sustaining medicinal plant and herb species within Kenyan society". She critiques the western dismissal of traditional medicine as non-science and its disregard for women's role in food production and healing. With this oversight, conservationists are missing a large factor in the conservation of biodiversity, namely women's role in conservation. Women have traditionally managed the genetic resources of plants, bringing seeds with them when they marry as well as supplying family members working in urban areas with food. McFadden remembers methods used by her mother and neighbors and relates her interview with an African Woman Healer. Through the interview, she confirms her belief that women are custodians not only medicinal of plants, but also food crops and vegetables, and she concludes that indigenous knowledge of women is a vital part of biodiversity conservation.
Conservation, Management and Sustainable Use of Biological Diversity in the Tana River Delta, Kenya
Year of Study: 1994
Implementor: Dr. Steven G. Njuguna
The Tana River Delta ecosystem, the largest delta system in Kenya, is an ecosystem of high biodiversity threatened by development projects. Dr. Njuguna presents this ecosystem as an area where development and conservation can be compatible, but says that this harmony is threatened by several development projects. He describes the ecosystem, the patterns of land use, the ecosystem's habitats, the development projects that will impact it and the existing protected areas, and recommends a course of action to mitigate the effects of development.
There are three major ethnic groups in the Tana River Delta - the Pokomo, the Orma and the Wardey. The Pokomo are agriculturalists who use flood irrigation to supply water and nutrients to their crops. Decreased water flow due to upstream dams has resulted in the increased use of pump-irrigation. The pastoralist Orma and Wardey groups use the Delta as a major grazing area during times of drought. The Tana Delta Irrigation Project will result in loss of grazing land. Fisheries and tourism, says Njuguna, are underutilized sources of income. Habitats include floodplain grasslands, woodlands and bushlands, sand-dune forests, marshland, mangroves, riverine forests, lakes and coastal waters. There are five projects impacting the Delta. The Garsen-Lamu Road project has caused an embankment to be created; this changed the natural drainage system of the area, killing trees and consequently reducing the food supply of the endangered Tana River Red Colobus and Tana River Crested Mangabey. The Tana Delta Irrigation Project (TDIP) involves a system of dikes for the production of rice paddies. Its potential impacts include the alteration of the hydrological system, degraded water supply, change in fresh/salt water balance, and change in vegetation cover. Njuguna suggests scaling down this effort. The Lower Tana Village Irrigation Project seeks to extend agricultural lands through clearing and burning; regeneration of the riverine forests is slow. The Coastal Aquaculture Project and the Kon-Dertu Ranching Project could possibly endanger the mangroves. Two protected areas exist in the Delta region: the Tana River National Primate Reserve and the Tana Delta Wetlands Reserve.
In order to maintain the compatible management of land use and conservation of biological diversity, Njuguna recommends: identifying the people using the Delta and the decision makers; developing a plan; promoting activities that alleviate pressures on the ecosystem; providing technical assistance and integrating it into the activities; investigating upstream activities; creating a management board that operates on an integrative management system; and establishing a monitoring and evaluation program.
Monitoring the Integrated Conservation and Development Strategy on the Masoala Peninsula in Madagascar
Years of study: 1993-1994
Implementors: Xerces Society, Wildlife Conservation Society, University of Antananrivo, Stanford University Center for Conservation Biology
Contact Person: Claire Kremen, Stanford University
The goal of the project was to develop a comprehensive ecological monitoring program on the Masoala Peninsula in northeastern Madagascar. An additional goal was to provide baseline data for use in establishing a national park and associated buffer zones on the peninsula. The study designed its monitoring program to be comprehensive, in that it 1) respected the need for monitoring at multiple levels of ecological organization, 2) monitored for composition, structure, and function within natural systems, 3) included indicator species or assemblages representing disparate higher taxa, and 4) included both biodiversity monitoring—which assesses changes in species populations—and targeted impact monitoring which looks at indicators' responses to specific environmental impacts such as edge effects, resource gathering, and cultivation. Key bird species, key primate species, avifauna, freshwater fish and invertebrates, permanent plant plots and coral reef plots were used as indicators for biodiversity monitoring.
Five studies, which were initiated in the first and second trimesters of the project, were continued during the third and fourth trimesters. These included studies on marine resource use, ethnobotany, lemur population dynamics, and mammal and insect communities. The extent of slash and burn (tavy) expansion was also examined, as well as the land and resource use of the waterways of the peninsula.
Developing the Integrated Conservation and Development Paradigm Based on Sound Biological Information and Local Participation in Creating a New Wetland Biosphere in Madagascar
Years of Study: 1993-1994
Implementor: The Peregrine Fund
Contact Person: Rick Watson
The goal of this project was to learn if and how development could promote conservation by developing methods to achieve local participation in the creation of protected areas and by designing ICDPs to be adaptive to dynamic changes in both human and other biotic populations. This project developed the methods and local capacity to achieve local involvement and collect biological information needed to create new protected areas and design and manage successful ICDPs. This was done through creating the Biological and Human Information Monitoring Unit (BHIMU). This project supported the training of 5 Malagasy technicians from local villages, 4 Malagasy Masters degree (DEA) students, and 2 Malagasy post-graduates forming a cohesive BHIMU team of 11 Malagasy personnel dedicated to gathering human and biological information. Training was done by PhD and Masters-level biologists and sociologists from the Peregrine Fund, one Malagasy consultant on PRA techniques, and two Peregrine Fund-trained Malagasy technicians from the Masoala Peninsula. Each student was in charge of his or her own biological or sociological study and the results are presented in the final grant report. The BHIMU involved local people in planning and gathering information needed to 1) create new protected areas in Madagascar's first wetland reserve, and 2) implement an ICDP that aims to sustainably conserve the natural resources of the area accommodating the needs of the local population. Specifically they collected the information needed for Special Reserve and buffer zone delineation and subsequent continuous monitoring of biological and human systems to provide feedback to the Biosphere Reserve and ICDP.
The Tsimembo forest and lakes Befotaka, Soamalipo, and Ankerika have been the focus of attention because they support the single most important concentration of the endangered Madagascar Fish Eagle in the country. The area is also perhaps the best preserved lake/forest ecotone in the country. The existence and good condition of the forest and lakes is partly due to the conservation ethic of the resident Sakalava tribespeople. However, this area is threatened by recent massive immigration of other people into the lakes region. The impact of increased fishing is not only diminishing catch rates but also causing loss of trees and other vegetation around the lakes for building and cooking. The resident Sakalava are aware of this intrusion on their previously quiet and lucrative lifestyle and are prepared to work with the Peregrine Fund, UNESCO, and the Malagasy government to establish a protected area in which they can control resource use within specific guidelines. The next phase of the project will be to establish those guidelines and create the new protected area.
The ability to collect high quality, scientifically defendable information on which to base conservation management decisions is vital for the success of any conservation attempt, whether it be labeled an ICDP, a biosphere reserve, or community-based conservation effort. Funding and training a team of individuals, such as the BHIMU, should be the first and highest priority step in designing a conservation project.
Public Attitudes and Assessment of Human Needs around Kasungu National Park
Years of Study: 1992
Implementor: Department of National Parks, Wildlife, and Tourism
Contact Person: F.X. Mkanda and S.M. Munthali
Address: Department of National Parks and Wildlife, PO Box 30131, Lilongwe 3, Malawi
The objectives of the study were to 1) examine means of increasing the utilitarian benefits associated with the park, and 2) develop mechanisms to generate direct benefits to communities living around the park. In addition, the final report also focuses on how local people can use biological resources, namely caterpillars, sustainably and how they can benefit from the conservation of biodiversity.
A questionnaire was used to assess people's needs and attitudes in three types of economies: subsistence, commercial, and urban. Among the benefits that people in all three types of economies wished to derive from the park were bee-keeping, and collecting caterpillars, firewood, building materials, and mushrooms. The study recommended that the Department of National Parks and Wildlife extend the existing wildlife resource use program, targeting the subsistence farmers in the Chulu and Kaphaizi villages. The survey indicated that land use needs are mostly commercial and that resource needs are largely subsistence. It therefore recommends that the department reject the request for additional lands. Further recommendations included the involvement of the people in all future activities, as well as the implementation of differential pricing of park entry and accommodation fees.
Study of the Use of Plant Species for Multiple Use in the Biosphere Reserve of the Baoule Belt
Year(s) of Study: 1994
Implementor: Association Malienne pour la Conservation de la Faune et de son Environment (AMCFE)
Contact Person: Moriba Nomoko
Mailing Address: AMCFE, BP 2921, Bamako, Mali
The main goal of this project was to identify economic, nutritional, and pharmacological utility of plant species from the Baoule Belt Biosphere Reserve and determine the exploitation and utilization of the species by the rural populations. AMCFE worked with local communities to foster participation in conservation planning and decision making by designing and implementing innovative conservation techniques that ensure participation of all stakeholders.
Development of Monitoring Procedures and Analysis of Community-based Conservation in Namibia
Years of Study: 1993-1995
Implementor: Environmental Planning Unit, Ministry of Wildlife Conservation and Tourism, and World Wildlife Fund
Contact Person: Brian Jones, Ministry of Environment and Tourism
The primary objective was to develop methods for monitoring the effectiveness of community-based conservation programs in Namibia as a means to protect biodiversity in arid and semi-arid areas, and to analyze the programs for lessons learned as they are tested in the field. In addition the grant supported the Ministry of Environment and Tourism (MET) in its coordination of the national community-based conservation program and supported pilot activities at the field level in the Bushmanland region. This region is of particular significance for biodiversity conservation in Namibia. It is part of the Kalahari sandveld system, and the project focused on seasonal pans that serve as focal points for people and wildlife.
In four districts, villagers participated in drawing village resource maps, which were then geo-referenced with a global positioning system (GPS). Data were collected on flora and fauna, seasonality, management inputs by the community, and community indicators for monitoring the state of the natural resources. Household surveys were conducted, and put into a global information system (GIS) along with remote sensing data to do problem analyses. During this process, training was provided to community members in participatory land assessment, data collection, and analysis and participatory planning. Ten community members were trained as Community Rangers and two as Natural Resource Officers. They were appointed by the community through village assessments and workshops. Their role is in resource monitoring, and relaying information between local governments and project leaders and the community. An Environmental Planning Committee (EPC), consisting of community representatives and Ministry personnel, was established as a mechanism to promote communication, coordination, and where possible, joint decision making about natural resource issues.
The resource maps were presented at a workshop and the community members discussed their land-use problems and options and came up with recommendations. One of the outcomes was the decision by the Makuri people to set up their own campsite for tourists. Another was that national-level planners could see the importance and value of community-based land-use planning and the need for significant local input into national planning. The village-level land and resource assessments have led to the creation of an important database that can be used at village, district and national levels. Debate is beginning whether the districts are an appropriate level of management and decision-making or whether a coalition of local management units that share control over certain resources might be better. During the BSP funded phase of the project, the ultimate responsibility and supervision of the project lay with MET. It therefore reflected MET's objectives more than that of the community, although the project was designed in a participatory process.
After BSP funding ended, MET's role shifted to one of support to the community and away from project management which is now much more in the hands of the community. In February 1995, senior MET officials, Nyae Nyae Farmers' Cooperative (NNFC) representatives, RADAS (local governance structure) and community rangers agreed on common conservation objectives for the region, developed a broad consensus on the need to build up wildlife numbers in the face of continued decline, and agreed that MET would train Community Rangers. At the national level, the Cabinet approved MET's policy for devolving rights over wildlife and tourism to communities on communal land who form wildlife management units called conservancies. If the people in the Tsumkwe district choose to form such a conservancy, this will represent an entirely new phase of community based conservation management in the region. The BSP funded phase of the project will have contributed significantly to preparing the community for this next phase. Due to various delays and staff changes during the project, not all of BSP's or MET's needs were met. However, it has played an important role in assisting the development of community-based conservation in Namibia, particularly in the Tsumkwe District. Although the BSP funding has ended, community-based natural resource management activities have continued in the area with support from the USAID-funded LIFE project.
As part of BSP's grant to MET, Brian Jones produced a project paper entitled Institutional Relationships, Capacity and Sustainability: Lessons Learned from a Community-based Conservation Project, Eastern Tsumkwe District, Namibia, 1991-1996. As part of the national CBNRM program, the site in Eastern Tsumkwe District was one of the sites chosen to involve rural people directly in conservation and promote the flow of economic and other benefits from sustainable use of wildlife and other resources back to the communities. This project suffered from lack of institutional capacity and certain institutional weaknesses among the three major partners, MET, the Nyae Nyae Development Foundation of Namibia (NNDFN), and NNFC. In MET, there seemed to be a lack of commitment and willingness of supervisors to train local Ministry management personnel to better work within a community-oriented approach. The lack of human resources also hampered project implementation as it grew, and suitable local candidates could not be found to fill necessary project assistants positions. In NNDFN, whose role it was to provide the community development component, there was internal division and problems with the community. They also did not have the right expertise and experience for developing CBNRM components. As a result of the inefficiency and conflict with the NNDFN, more emphasis was placed on improving the NNFC, which had its own problems of representation, decision-making and accountability. The NNFC underwent reorganization and developed a commitment to improving its accountability and feedback to its members. This eventually resulted in the NNFC becoming the first community-based organization to receive a direct subgrant from the LIFE Programme to run its own project activities. Passing of legislation providing for conservancies was crucial to the success of future CBNRM programs. Without it communities could not address local management issues such as wildlife loss from illegal hunting by local people and settlement at key water points and make collective decisions regarding wildlife management for their own use and benefit. The following conclusions were drawn:
Conservation of Biodiversity in Kaokoland, Namibia: The Involvement of Indigenous People in Efforts to Conserve the Endemic Black-faced Impala
Year(s) of Study: 1992-1994
Implementor: University of Nevada, Reno
Contact Person: Wendy Green
Mailing Address: c/o Hobatere Lodge, PO Box 110, Kamanjab 9000, Namibia
The Kaokoland in the northwest corner of Namibia suffered dramatic losses of its wildlife population during the 1970s and early 1980s. Since then, an Auxiliary Game Guard system has been implemented. Game guards are selected by the area headman and are supervised by the Directorate of Nature Conservation, although they are under the authority of the headman. An effort was needed to monitor wildlife populations to see if they were recovering. The researchers focused their efforts on one of region's endemic species, the black-faced impala, which is now rare in Kaokoland. Their goals were three-fold: to determine the status of the species, to assess local attitudes towards wildlife and to initiate a local monitoring program. The game guard system was successful because it was implemented through the village heads, so the researchers met with village headmen or elders and then contacted the game guards. They surveyed the populations of impala using local people as guides and interviewed villagers to find out what their attitudes were. Trained game guards and other individuals to monitor the impala populations for data such as sex, age, number, water source, plant use and movement was hampered by constraints such as lack of binoculars, inability to read or write, language barriers and time. However, the game guards gave reliable information and were very interested in the wildlife populations; their assistance proved that local involvement is essential to conservation projects in the area. In order to be successful, a conservation program must involve the local people and must produce clear benefits for the local populations; in this region, working with the auxiliary game guards is the best way to implement a conservation strategy.
Ethnobotany and Field Taxonomy Course, November-December 1993
Years of Study: 1993
Implementor: Bioresources Development and Conservation Program
Contact Person: Maurice Iwu
Many environmental projects are being conducted in Africa without any consideration for the traditional ecological knowledge of the rural communities who, over hundreds of years, have forged an adaptive coexistence in which they exert minimum damage to the environment. Although it has been generally recognized that there is a nexus between sustainable utilization of natural resources, conservation of biodiversity, and economic development, there has not been a proper articulation or agreement of a suitable framework for addressing this connectivity. In order to include indigenous knowledge in an environmental and economic management plan, biological, social and economic assessments and monitoring need to take place. Prior to this project, the biological resources research and conservation work was seriously hampered by inadequate number of trained staff with field experience in Nigeria. Nigeria does have a high number of scientists and managers with training in conservation theory and environmental management, but very few mid-level, field-based personnel.
The Bioresources Development and Conservation Programme (BDCP) was planning to conduct a biodiversity monitoring project to study forest dynamics in selected sites in Nigeria and gather data on medicinal, aromatic, and other non-timber forest products for a basic inventory of indigenous plant uses and an economic value assessment of biological resources in the area. However, there were not enough qualified field personnel to carry out such an elaborate region-wide assessment. As part of a series of preliminary activities in preparation for this Biodiversity Inventory and Monitoring Project, BDCP thought it necessary to train selected field personnel from the various states in the focal areas in basic methods of plant taxonomy, classification, herbarium sample preparation and ethnographic data collection.
Five core staff and 24 guest lecturers took part in the training program, including three professors from the US. Candidates who were employed in the Forestry or Agricultural Departments of the state governments of the focal areas were nominated for the course. Fifteen participants were chosen, most of whom had undergraduate degrees in related disciplines. Even though women were encouraged to apply, only one women was nominated. Lectures were given in fundamental concepts of tropical human ecology, ethnobiology, plant and insect taxonomy, ethnography, biodiversity monitoring techniques, biological sampling, analysis methods, indigenous ecological knowledge and conservation techniques, African worldview, and economic value assessment. Practical courses and instructions were also given on preparation of herbarium specimens, field inventory methods, and demarcation and maintenance of biodiversity plots. Following completion of the formal course, participants were given a supervised field project for eight weeks to be conducted at their locations.
The final result was a highly integrated program in which materials were presented in a targeted problem solving method. A special cadre of staff was trained to contribute to the Inventory Project and be the much needed bridge between the highly specialized scientists in various aspects of biodiversity conservation and rural communities. Specifically graduates of the training are expected to assist the Biodiversity Inventory Project by: 1) collecting and preserving biological samples, 2) collecting ethnobotanical information by serving as team leaders in a project that is expected to include village level parataxonomists, and 3) manage BDCP field stations assigned to them and acting as extension officer between the central project office and the community.
The Impact of Land Tenure Changes and Land Use Practices on the Conservation of Biodiversity among Farming Communities in Southeastern Nigeria
Year of Study: 1994
Contact Persons: Dr. Admeola T. Salau and Dr. Francis C. Okafor
Current Address: Deputy Vice Chancellor's Office, University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt, Nigeria
South-eastern Nigeria is a highly populated region of Nigeria with strong agricultural pressures exerted on its biological resources. The purpose of the study was to examine the agricultural practices behind the degradation of the area, to determine what conservation efforts were already being implemented, to establish the level of village and household involvement in conserving biodiversity and, finally, to suggest additional steps that could be taken to preserve biodiversity.
To implement these goals, the researchers conducted field surveys of villages in the Anambra and Imo States. These regions were selected due to their high population density and because their inhabitants rely on agricultural and forest lands for their livelihoods. The researchers were interested in how much effort the villages put in to biodiversity conservation and how sustainable their land use practices were. They also investigated species richness, paying particular attention to species that were once abundant but whose populations had decreased or vanished, and comparing these populations in degraded environments to those in preserved forests. Household level studies were conducted to determine conservation and land management practices, and then indigenous conservation practices were compared with modern methods.
The researchers concluded that the Imo and Anambra States' ecosystems were under extreme pressure. While efforts (mixed cropping, cover cropping, farm contouring, tree planting) were being made to alleviate the stress on the environment, further efforts from the community and the government are necessary. The government needs to implement a strong environmental education program as well as passing conservation laws and subsidizing community agriculture. Communities also need to increase general awareness of the fragility of the land on which they eke out their living.
Traditional Mechanisms for Natural Resource Conservation in Nigeria: A Strategy for Adoption in the National Conservation Programme
Years of Study: 1994
Implementor: Dr. I. I. Ihimodu
Mailing Address: Department of Economics, University of Ilorin, P.M.B. 1515, Ilorin, Nigeria
The goal of this study was to determine the possibility of a government conservation project in Nigeria utilizing the existing traditions of the people; the project focused on the preservation of forest reserves. The researchers first examined traditional methods of natural resource conservation, investigating the factors that influenced these methods as well as their feasibility. Using a literature search, locational surveys, data generation and analysis, the researchers analyzed the viability of traditional methods. The study covered locations in the Osun and Kogi States: the Masquerade Forest, the Iluke Sacred Stream, the Akutupa Sacred River and the Osun River and Forest. Personal interviews and questionnaires were used to generate data. The researchers interviewed chiefs, traditional rulers, community leaders, women, elders, religious leaders and residents. A questionnaire dealing with awareness of protected resources, existing taboos and violation of taboos, was given to randomly selected residents. Tradition was proven to be a strong force that prevented exploitation of the natural resources. By strengthening and, where possible, extending taboos and community awareness, biodiversity conservation can be furthered within the framework of the indigenous social structure.
Valuation of Biodiversity: Creating Incentives for the Conservation of Biodiversity in Africa
Years of Study: 1993
Implementor: Dr. Ademola Salau
Mailing Address: Deputy Vice Chancellor's Office, University of Port Harcourt, Port Harcourt, Nigeria
Dr. Salau's paper discusses whether or not it is possible to assign a value to biodiversity and the utility of valuation to furthering conservation. Biodiversity benefits many, but those affected by its loss are not those who reap its benefits. The economic cost of biodiversity loss is difficult to measure. This difficulty translates to a market failure because the market does not reflect actual economic costs and benefits, and the market failure translates to further biodiversity losses. Market failure results in the following contributors to biodiversity loss: inconsistent policy on land rights, expansion of commercial farms, use of high-yielding crop varieties, destructive practices in protected areas and Third-World country debt.
Eliminating market failure would eliminate the aforementioned causes of biodiversity loss. In order to do so, three changes need to be made: natural resource price must reflect the environmental cost as well as the value of the lost future benefit in addition to the harvesting cost; the National Accounting System must factor in biodiversity as an asset and count its loss as depreciation; and project investment appraisals must be updated to count the environmental degradation that will be caused.
The problems with eliminating market failure evolve from the basic conceptual nature of biodiversity: it is made up of smaller components, but its value is not necessarily the sum of its components' values. Measuring the value of biodiversity loss could be done by measuring the economic effect of its loss, but too many cultural and regional factors are involved in this measurement. People's willingness to support conservation is based on their values and preferences, not the values of the resources themselves. More importantly, the market is imperfect, so theoretical solutions are impractical.
Modest economic incentives for conservation (tax breaks for recycling and undeveloped lands, remuneration of indigenous knowledge, joint management of forest reserves by local communities and governments, involvement of locals in protected area management, distribution of subsidies to small-holder farmers and debt reduction) have more of a chance for success than changing the National Accounting System. Economic solutions are not enough; political action must be taken as well.
Monitoring and Evaluation of Biodiversity Conservation Programme in the Rain Forest Zone of Southeastern Nigeria
Years of Study: 1993-1995
Implementor: Jonathan C. Okafor
The project aimed at monitoring and evaluating techniques of propagation, conservation and utilization of indigenous woody crops featured in rural development. Emphasis was placed on the economic, health and environmental aspects of development. Sixty participants (both men and women) from three regions in southeastern Nigeria (Imo, Anambra, and Enugu) were selected to attend training workshops to learn techniques about raising and growing 17 plant species. Participants who were farmers carried out nursery development and field planting, while species selected by the project team were developed at headquarters then distributed to the farmers. Each region or centre held two two-day workshops for the participants in those areas. Two workshops for all participants were held at the project's headquarters in Enugu. The regional workshops provided sessions on modern propagation techniques, introduced conservation training, and examined problems with project implementation. Attitudes towards the conservation and utilization of indigenous edible woody species were recorded during the workshops. Bi-monthly site visits conducted by a research assistant were used to assess the impact of the project.
Participants were most interested and enthusiastic about growing plants that provided them with immediate benefits (e.g. medicinal or economic). The main problems the participants faced included lack of water, land tenure issues, cash shortage, labor shortage, poor availability of improved planting materials, and time commitment. Participants felt they gained several things from the project: enlightenment on usefulness of plants (especially medicinal), food supply, knowledge of propagation techniques, cash source, and employment opportunities. Because of their increased knowledge of the uses of the plants, participants were more interested in conserving them. Three farmers' groups selected for the project have been recognized by local governments and communities as the first groups of farmers committed to conserving threatened species. These groups work to raise awareness by organizing outreach programs on the value of plants and, consequently, plant conservation.
Mafia Island Marine Park Project
Year(s) of Study: 1994-1997
Implementor: World Wildlife Fund, Tanzania Country Office
Contact Person: Irene Kamau
The Mafia Island region is a diverse landscape with seagrass, coral reef, and estuarine ecosystems. The goal of the project is to support the establishment of the Mafia Island Marine Park (MIMP) and the implementation of priority conservation and development activities. Planned activities included: conducting planning meetings involving the community; carrying out research and monitoring for zoning and management; developing park infrastructure and a zoning plan; enforcing the law and park regulations; providing criteria for ecotourism; developing a permit system for legal use of park resources; and developing a transition plan and a five year funding proposal. The project proposed activities to reduce pressures on the park's ecosystems while ensuring sustainable use: feasibility studies for resource use (e.g., alternate fishing gear and building materials) and alternate income sources (e.g., ecotourism); research and monitoring; and strengthening community institutions.
Mafia Island Marine Park was gazetted on 28 April 1995. Progress on many of the objectives was limited by the lack of the institutional framework being established and the lack of a formal working arrangement with the Tanzania Division of Fisheries. Good progress was made to protect the area's biodiversity; dynamiting activity dropped significantly in 1996 which enforced community trust with WWF. Many community development projects were initiated, including support for schools and awareness campaigns. A women's fishing collective was developed, and village feedback was received on the Kiswahili translation of the Marine Parks and Reserves Act.
Socio-economic Impact of the Community Wildlife Management Program on Women of Mgeta River Buffer Zone
Year of Study: 1995
Contact Person: Miriam Zacharia
Mailing Address: Wildlife Division, PO Box 1994, Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania
This study on the socio-economic impact of the Community Wildlife Management Program on the women of the Mgeta River buffer zone (MRBZ) was designed to analyze family income contribution by men and women, to assess the social welfare and economic improvement of women in MRBZ, to provide a mechanism to increase income for women in MRBZ, and to suggest ways to improve the benefits of the community wildlife management program to women. A Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) method, consisting of semi-structured interviews and obtaining secondary information from village government offices and Selous Consevation Program (SCP) offices, was used to collect information from five villages: Gomero, Milengwelengwe, Dakawa, Bonye and Mbwade. Indicators used to assess the social impacts of the SCP programs to women included participation in natural resource management decision-making at the village level, involvement in economic self-help projects organized by SCP, and the number of women participating in SCP programs. Amount of involvement in economic activities of the SCP programs, earnings from SCP programs, and new economic projects initiated/ended by SCP were used as indicators to assess the impact on women's income.
The SCP programs failed to improve the economic wealth of the women in the area. No women successfully utilized the services provided by SCP through its self-help projects. Women did participate in decision making through membership in different committees of the village council. Representing women through the ruling party wing, however, undermined equal opportunities for participating in decision-making. High poverty levels in the villages further marginalized women. In order for women to properly manage their small economic projects, training in agriculture, business, marketing, and maternal care is needed. The report concludes by saying the government alone is unable to provide necessary capacity building services for women; NGOs have an important role to play.
Project to publish information on the CAMPFIRE Programme in Zimbabwe
Years of Study: 1993-1995
Implementor: Africa Resources Trust (ART)
Current Address: 3 Allan Wilson Avenue, Belgravia, Harare, Zimbabwe
The project was proposed by ART and the CAMPFIRE Association on behalf of the CAMPFIRE Collaborative Group (CCG). The project intended to publish information about CAMPFIRE aimed at politicians, policy-makers, academics and the media. The objectives of the project were two-fold:
a) to increase awareness, especially among policy and decision-makers of the CAMPFIRE Programme of natural resource management in the rural areas
b) to provide the necessary background information and direction to guide the future communication of CAMPFIRE.
Eight booklets highlighting important aspects of CAMPFIRE were prepared in English and published jointly with the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) and the CAMPFIRE Collaborative Group (CCG). Two booklets have been translated into French.
The project was a collaborative effort between local organizations. The CAMPFIRE Association is the lead agency of CCG, providing advisory and support services and information dissemination amongst the member rural councils and communities. The CCG is comprised of: Zimbabwe Trust, CAMPFIRE Association, World Wildlife Fund - Zimbabwe, Centre for Applied Social Sciences (CASS) at the University of Zimbabwe, Africa Resources Trust (ART), Department of National Parks and Wildlife Management, Ministry of Local Government, Rural and Urban Development.
African People, African Parks
Year(s) of Study: 1992
Implementor: Conservation International
Contact Person: Lee Hannah
Parks across Africa vary in habitats, size, and administration. The African People, African Parks study is an analysis of the successes and failures of people and parks projects—projects in which local people are involved in the management of the park and receive benefits from the park. By reviewing the records of projects that include rural development in their management, the researchers hoped their results would contribute to improved design and implementation of park management. The study was conducted through interviews with more than 40 conservation professionals, field visits, and analysis. Projects that had two years of development activity implementation were identified during the interview process and highlighted in case studies. The interviews revealed that while many understood and supported integrated conservation and development projects, actual implementation was rare. The interviews allowed the researchers to generate a list of sites for field visits. The visits, conducted in 1989, lasted from 5-10 days, and included interviews with project staff, information verification, and formal interviews with local people.
Five factors for successful project design are: obtaining technical assistance; tailoring development methods to local conditions and respecting local culture; building support at international, national and local levels; strengthening enforcement by building on traditional management practices if possible; and planning a long project duration to allow for adaptive management. African People, African Parks states that successful people and parks initiatives must have long-term donor commitment, a sound policy environment, and a focused and well-designed project approach that includes technical assistance. Endowments may be required for long-term sustainability.
About BSP
BSP is a consortium of World Wildlife Fund, The Nature Conservancy, and World Resources Institute, funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). BSP's mission is to promote conservation of the world's biological diversity. We believe that a healthy and secure living resource base is essential to meet the needs and aspirations of present and future generations. BSP began in 1988 and will close down in December 2001.
Acknowledgments
BSP would like to thank all the BAA grantees for their valuable contributions to the project. Kate Newman and James Webster coordinated the BAA project, with guidance from Kathryn Saterson and Timothy Resch. Further support was provided in BSP by Mohamed Bakarr, Peter DeBrine, Satta Nallo, and Barbara Pitkin. Technical advice was provided by the BAA African Biodiversity Advisory Group: Emmanuel Chidumayo, Mohamed Khalil, Patricia McFadden, Steven Njuguna, Yaa Ntiamoa-Baidu, Ademola Salau, and William Weber. Consultants to the project were: Alden Almquist, Ian Deshmukh, Paula Donnelly-Roark, George Frame, Fred Swartzendruber, and David Wilkie.
This publication was made possible through support provided to BSP by the Global Bureau of USAID, under the terms of Cooperative Agreement Number DHR-A-00-88-00044-00. The opinions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID.
© 2000 by World Wildlife Fund, Inc., Washington, D.C. All rights reserved. Reproduction of this publication for educational and other noncommercial purposes is authorized without prior permission of the copyright holder. However, WWF, Inc. does request advance written notification and appropriate acknowledgment. WWF, Inc. does not require payment for the noncommercial use of its published works and in no way intends to diminish use of WWF research and findings by means of copyright.
Biodiversity Support Program
1250 24th Street, NW
Washington, DC 20037
USA