NORTH AMERICA
18. Canada: Ditidaht Traditional Knowledge Mapping / GIS
PROJECT STATUS: Current.
LOCAL ORG: Ditidaht Band Council, Community Pacific Resource Group, Sofor Inforgraphics.
NATIONAL ORG: --
EXTERNAL ORG: --
DONOR: Government of British Columbia, Heritage Conservation Branch.
CONTACT: Chief Jack Thompson, Ditidaht Band Council, P.O. Box 340, Port Alberni, BC V9Y 7M8, Canada. Tel: 604-745-3333 Fax: 604-745-3332.
REFERENCES: Scott 1995.
OBJECTIVE: To develop a cartographic methodology appropriate for mapping traditional knowledge, occupancy and resource use.
BACKGROUND: The Heritage Conservation Branch of the Government of British Columbia is addressing the question: What would a cartographic knowledge base for First Nations communities look like? How can traditional land use and occupancy be translated into codes and topologies that would be generally useful in representing and managing indigenous lands? The Ditidaht Band, Nu'Chah'Nulth First Nation, is collaborating with the Branch on a pilot project to devise suitable symbols and categories.
METHOD: The information will initially be collected through conversations with elders, which may be audio or video recorded. The data will then be entered on 1: 20,000 base maps (17 sheets) and digitized into a GIS. One problem encountered in using these maps, and satellite imagery, is that they are not detailed enough to record some features of traditional significance.
The community is working on a technique whereby a viewer can click onto any specific site shown on the digitized map and prompt either an audio or video account by an elder of the story and significance of that site. The band is also using a GIS to predict the likelihood of finding archeological sites. By applying such parameters as elevation, slope, distance from water, derived from analyses of known sites, the group has managed to predict occurrences with 95% accuracy.
RESULT: Current results are encouraging. The project is proving to be useful in terms of raising community awareness of land-related issues and in communicating knowledge and views between generations.
____________________________________________________________
19. Canada: The Eagle Project / GIS
LOCATION: Great Lakes ecosystem.
LOCAL ORG: 63 indigenous communities.
NATIONAL ORG: Assembly of First Nations (AFN).
EXTERNAL ORG: Health and Welfare Canada.
DONOR AGENCY: Health and Welfare Canada.
PROJECT STATUS: Current.
CONTACT: Maxine Caldwell, Assembly of First Nations, 5th floor, 55 Murray Street, Ottawa, ON K1N 5M3, Canada.
REFERENCES: AFN 1993, Bird 1995.
OBJECTIVE: To determine the impacts of environmental change upon First Nations societies within the Great Lakes Basin.
BACKGROUND: The EAGLE (Effects upon Aboriginals of the Great Lakes Environment) Project is the first of its kind to be managed by First Nations, and is serving as a model for community-based regional health programs. The project is based upon the need to examine the high rate of consumption of freshwater fish and wildlife, as well as the resulting high exposure risk to contaminants among First Nations communities in the Great Lakes Basin.
METHOD: A GIS is used to keep track of progress in involving 63 First Nations communities in a 5-year program, which will integrate a vast amount of data including:
This will enable EAGLE staff to study the socio-economic effects of food contamination, estimate contaminant exposure levels among indigenous communities and estimate risk.
RESULT: The project is underway.
___________________________________________________________
20. Canada: Inuit Land Use and Occupancy Study / Basic Mapping
PROJECT STATUS: Complete.
LOCAL ORG: Inuit Communities.
NATIONAL ORG: Inuit Tapirisat.
EXTERNAL ORG: --
DONOR: Federal Government of Canada.
CONTACT: Inuit Tapirisat, Suite 510, 172 Laurier Avenue West, Ottawa, ON K1P 5V5, Canada. Tel: 613-238-8181 Fax: 613-234-1991.
REFERENCES: Freeman 1976.
OBJECTIVE: To provide evidence of land use and occupancy to support Inuit land negotiations with the Canadian government.
BACKGROUND: The series of colonial-style treaty negotiations between First Nations and the federal government came to a close in the 1930's. In 1973, the government announced a readiness to settle outstanding land issues and this precipitated the current series of negotiations, concentrated first in northern Canada and now in British Columbia, where the provincial government did not recognize aboriginal rights until 1992.
METHOD: This was perhaps the first extensive attempt to work with communities, rather than merely studying them, to establish historical and traditional patterns of occupancy and land use. This project covers the entire Northwest Territories. External fieldworkers were assigned to communities where they worked with Inuit to trace seasonal movements in hunting, trapping and fishing onto sketch maps. These were later amalgamated into a large three-volume study describing the methodology, actual patterns (in 153 pages of maps), and a number of derived studies and commentaries.
RESULT: The Inuit Land Use and Occupancy Study was the basic geographic source for negotiating the Inuvialuit (Western Arctic) land claim and the Nunavut (Eastern Arctic) land claim, and is also a unique historical record. Original maps are stored in the National Archive.
_________________________________________________________________
21. Canada: Inuit of Quebec Land Use and Ecological Mapping / GIS
PROJECT STATUS: Completed.
LOCAL ORG: Makivik Corporation.
NATIONAL ORG: Inuit Tapirisat of Canada.
EXTERNAL ORG: --
DONOR AGENCY: Makivik Corporation.
CONTACT: Johnny Peters, Makivik Corporation, 650 32nd Avenue, Suite 404, Lachine, PQ H8T 3K4, Canada, Tel: 514-637-3771 Fax: 514-637-3146.
REFERENCES: Brooke 1993, Kemp et al 1995.
OBJECTIVE: To map Inuit land use, occupancy and ecological knowledge.
BACKGROUND: Unlike other recent land-claim settlements, the James Bay Agreement, which was precipitated by the James Bay Hydro Project, was not preceded by a land-use and occupancy study. Inuit soon realized that they could not put the provisions of the Agreement into effect, on their terms, without collecting comprehensive data on their resource use and ecological knowledge. The project was financed entirely by Makivik Corporation, the Inuit implementing organization that emerged from the Agreement, and it was executed by the Makivik Research Department.
METHOD: Between 1976 and 1981, a base line was established from interviews with all harvesters and knowledgeable people. Thousands of field maps were transcribed, digitized and entered into a GIS. These were supplemented by written text and audio recordings. The database is entirely under the control of Makivik and contributing communities. Access is only possible through consent of individuals and communities concerned.
RESULT: Over the last ten years, the database has been continually updated and used for such purposes as dealing with further hydro development proposals, planning Inuit fisheries, presenting off-shore claims, land-use planning, wildlife management, curriculum development, and historical projects.
____________________________________________________________
22. Canada: Mamo Atoskewin Association Impact Assessment / GIS
PROJECT STATUS: Current.
LOCAL ORG: Communities of Manawan, Wemotaci, Opitciwan and the Mamo Atoskewin Association (MAA).
NATIONAL ORG: --
EXTERNAL ORG: --
DONOR AGENCY: --
CONTACT: Michel Ares, Mamo Atoskewin Association (MAA), 540 St. Antoine, La Tuque, PQ G9X 2Y4, Canada. Tel: 819-523-9876 Fax: 819-523-5753.
REFERENCES: --
OBJECTIVE: To make a database and map of Atikamekw lands based on traditional knowledge, for use in dealing with the impacts of industrial logging.
BACKGROUND: Current Quebec forestry legislation does not contain any recognition of traditional resource use or of land-claim negotiations between First Nations and the government. Therefore, the strategy for dealing with the impacts of forestry was to call for the observance of regulations of logging practices in relation to wildlife distribution and habitat, specifically moose and beaver.
METHOD: Since 1989 the Mamo Atoskewin Association (MAA) has been compiling a database and map of traditional patterns of resource use. Information was gathered by local volunteers through conversations with elders. It covered the occurrence of moose, beaver and waterfowl, and sites for gathering such materials as birch bark, berries and medicinal plants. The information was entered on 1:50,000 topographic sheets. Over the first four months data was gathered for 35,000,000 ha (49 map sheets) and then transferred to the 1:20,000 maps used for forestry management (120 sheets). To map moose yards (where moose gather at critical periods) and beaver lodges, three stages of verification were used: 1) presumed, based upon local discussions 2) potential, from addition of available scientific data and habitat type and 3) recognized, by field visit (usually helicopter).
Altogether 511 yards were presumed. Of these, MAA was able to check 117, and found 72 occupied by moose. The same process was used for mapping beaver. MAA devised a method for determining whether beaver lodges were active through aerial observation. Early in October, they could see stores of food near the lodge and visible signs of repair. MAA has used a GRASS (Geographic Resource Analysis Support System) GIS, available free from the U.S. military and compatible with Macintosh and UNIX hardware. Landsat TM satellite imagery has been used in conjunction with the topographic map sheets. A GPS was used to record elders' information from 186 sites. MAA is now training 3 local individuals to operate MAC graphic software, which is compatible with the GRASS relational database.
RESULT: The maps showed that some moose yards had been clearcut and established that the logging company has not observed regulations regarding the proximity of tree-cutting to beaver lodges where they occur in specific densities. The maps were sent to government agencies, but there has been no official response. However, MAA has learned that the data on moose yards has been used by resource management agencies without consultation, even though these were considered to be confidential. MAA has not yet been able to contain industrial logging on its lands, but has demonstrated the advantages of generating a superior database. MAA now possesses evidence of poor management and intends to challenge both the industry to observe, and the responsible agencies to apply, existing regulations. The onus then falls on these other interests to accept the MAA database, or question it by collecting yet more information with their own resources.
____________________________________________________________
23. Canada: Manitoba Keewatinowi Okimakanak / GIS
PROJECT STATUS: Current.
LOCAL ORG: Manitoba Keewatinawi Okimakanak (MKO).
NATIONAL ORG: --
EXTERNAL ORG: --
DONOR AGENCY: 25 Cree communities.
CONTACT: Stewart Hill, MKO Natural Resources Secretariat, 3 Station Rd, Thompson, MB R8N ON3, Canada. Tel: 204-778-4431 Fax: 204-778-7655 / 800-442-0488.
REFERENCES: --
OBJECTIVE: To provide a range of environmental and mapping services for member communities.
BACKGROUND: In the late 1980s, 25 Cree bands in Manitoba decided to combine their resources to form MKO as a resource secretariat serving the needs of member communities.
METHOD: The Secretariat commenced by gathering information from elders and from traditional users of the land and entering it on a GIS. The GIS database now covers 10 million ha in Manitoba and the Northwest Territories and is reportedly the largest and most comprehensive land-information source in the region. The traditional knowledge baseline information is drawn from about 400 map biographies. This is overlaid with information from aerial photography and remote sensing. Like the GIS database generated in Quebec by Makivik Corporation (proj. 21), the MKO system is entirely owned and operated by the indigenous organization, without government involvement or support.
RESULT: The MKO database is in constant use to support treaty and land settlement selection, claim negotiations, environmental impact management, resource management, forestry operations and the resource initiatives of member communities. It has also proved stimulating in visually communicating knowledge and perspectives and related traditional values between generations. It will play a role in the BOREAS Project, a $40 million NASA initiative on Cree lands to test various local airborne methods for ground-truthing the satellites of EOS (Earth Observing System) due to be launched in 1996. The database has also enabled MKO to earn revenues from non-indigenous sources for various land planning and inventory exercises.
____________________________________________________________
24. Canada: Sanikiluaq / Aerial Photographic Animal Census
PROJECT STATUS: Completed.
LOCAL ORG: Weasels Hunters and Trappers Association, Sanikiluaq.
NATIONAL ORG: Boreal Institute.
EXTERNAL ORG: --
DONOR AGENCY: Department of Indian Affairs.
CONTACT: Lucassie Arragutainaq, Weasels Hunters and Trappers Association, Sanikiluaq, NWT, Canada. Tel: 819-266-8983 Fax: 819-266-8903.
REFERENCES: Arragutainaq et al 1989.
OBJECTIVE: To obtain a complete aerial count of reindeer as baseline data in developing a ground-based census methodology.
BACKGROUND: Caribou vanished from the Belcher Islands in the nineteenth century. In the early 1970s, the government air-lifted 63 reindeer (domesticated caribou) from a herd in the Western Arctic. Inuit from the community of Sanikiluaq refrained from hunting the herd until numbers reached the estimated carrying capacity for the islands. A government survey in the early 1980s indicated a healthy and growing population, but later computer-based projections from these results indicated that it was exceeding range capacity. A quota was recommended to Sanikiluaq, but both the total estimate (800-900) and the quota (140) were felt locally to be too high.
Since the reindeer is technically a domesticated animal, the Government of the Northwest Territories Wildlife Service was unable to provide the needed technical support, despite the fact that the transplanted reindeer had effectively returned to their caribou origins and become completely feral. Instead, the Inuit of Sanikiluaq managed to obtain funds from the Federal government to enable them to develop their own management plan for reindeer and other resources. The community decided to start by devising an innovative method to conduct an annual reindeer census by snowmobile.
METHOD: The Sanikiluaq decided to conduct an aerial survey and compare the results with a ground-based census. The survey was conducted with an Inuit-owned Beaver aircraft and a survey crew of four local hunters, an external photographer and the Inuit pilot. The objective was to secure a total, rather than a sample count. On survey transect, the hunters spotted groups of reindeer the pilot then flew over, while the photographer recorded the group. Two of the hunters were unable to count but they were confident that they had seen all the reindeer. The furthest sighting was by the pilot -- a group of five at a range of 2 km.
RESULT: he air survey lasted four hours and the resulting photographic count was 479, with the largest concentration of 222. The subsequent ground survey, conducted by five snowmobiles over five days, yielded an estimate of 462, 95% of the aerial estimate. The results were questioned by the Wildlife Service on the grounds that the survey lines were too far apart and too high, and that the ground survey was conducted after the aerial estimate was completed. They further contended that the Inuit knew the location of the herds from the air survey. The Inuit observed that such prior knowledge offers no advantage as the main herd was seen to move halfway across the entire Belcher Island archipelago during the four hours of the air survey. However, it was decided to run a second survey the next winter, as a compromise to address the comments about flight lines and altitudes, and to not process the film until the ground survey was completed. During the second year, the air count was 437 and the ground count was 416, again 95%. Both counts indicated an annual after-quota increase of 17%, which is encouragingly high for caribou/reindeer.
____________________________________________________________
25. Canada: Shuswap Nation Tribal Council / GIS
PROJECT STATUS: Current.
LOCAL ORG: Shuswap Nation Tribal Council (SNTC).
NATIONAL ORG: --
EXTERNAL ORG: --
DONOR AGENCY: --
CONTACT: Verna Billy, SNTC, 355 Yellowhead Highway, Kamloops, BC V2H 1H1, Canada. Tel: 604-828-9808 Fax: 604-374-6331.
REFERENCES: SNTC 1993.
OBJECTIVE: To realize the potential of GIS for locally based land and community management.
BACKGROUND: The Shuswap Nation's interest in GIS can be traced to the late 1980s when the SNTC refused to join in the Canadian census, as the previous one had been determined to be extremely inaccurate. Eventually, the SNTC agreed to join as long as the census was locally controlled. This led the SNTC to assume responsibilities for local demographic data, and to later extend this to cover land and resources.
METHOD: The SNTC convened a workshop of other GIS users in 1991. This led to the following conclusions (SNTC 1993): 1) establishing GIS is time-consuming and expensive 2) data acquisition and updating is the most expensive component of a functioning GIS 3) without specific applications it is difficult to evaluate the effectiveness of GIS software packages 4) careful analysis of the available base maps' accuracy and usefulness must be conducted and 5) it is crucial to develop both the educational (theoretical) and technical (practical) GIS skills in-house to ensure continued usage.
The SNTC have explored the potential of several GIS systems. Shuswap communities are using one of the more simple GIS systems, Quikmap, to produce digitized charts of their traditional territories. These will be amalgamated as the basis for the Shuswap comprehensive land claim. A Quikmap/ARC-INFO interface is being developed to map the local data needed for communities to manage infrastructure and lands. The people of Neskonlith have used a Terrasoft GIS to produce a model land-management system covering about 4,000 ha. The central SNTC GIS services the needs of 13 communities. When the source is traditional knowledge rather than freely available demographic data, this information remains under the control of individual communities, with SNTC using only a more generalized version for GIS integration.
RESULT: The SNTC has demonstrated an appropriate niche for GIS as a central operation serving member communities.
____________________________________________________________
26. United States: Colville Confederated Tribes / GIS
PROJECT STATUS: Current.
LOCAL ORG: Colville Confederated Tribes (CCT).
NATIONAL ORG: Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), Indian Integrated Resource Information Program (IIRIP).
EXTERNAL ORG: --
DONOR AGENCY: --
CONTACT: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Geographic Data Service Centre, 730 Simms Street, Room 101, Golden, CO 80401, USA. Tel: 303-231-5100 Fax: 303-231-5122.
Michael Marchand, Planning Director, Colville Confederated Tribes, Box 150 Nespelem, WA 99155 USA. Tel: 509-634-4711 Fax: 509-634-4116.
REFERENCES: Marchand and Winchell 1994.
OBJECTIVE: As one of ten pilot projects, to introduce GIS to tribal authorities in the United States.
BACKGROUND: In 1983, the BIA established a National Center in Colorado to assist tribes interested in acquiring a GIS capability, specifically ARC/INFO. The initial idea was that tribal GIS units could gain access to a central database stored in a main frame computer. CCT is one of these tribal groups and its experience has lessons for similar organizations.
METHOD: Problems arose when tribal members felt that the BIA was reluctant to provide some basic data, such as land titles and forest records. The initial GIS application was in forestry this, along with resource management in general, has proven effective in technical terms. However, these applications tended to monopolize the system, making it difficult to expand in order to cover other local applications such as planning, housing, and infrastructure.
On a second project, the Tribes funded a collaborative project with the University of Eastern Washington to use GIS for an environmental impact study of a proposed ski resort and recreational development. Problems with long distance communications and interactions eventually led the Tribes to compromise and combine GIS products with hand-drawn maps. On the positive side, maps of such resources as berries and medicinal plant areas, compiled from interviews with elders, played a crucial role in this impact assessment. The IIRIP adopted a neutral position on whether the BIA or local authorities would control GIS operations. However, the complexity of GIS management coupled with the lack of local skills meant that, in effect, the BIA assumed a dominant role over GIS applications, particularly in forestry.
RESULT: This experience convinced tribal members of the need to create a tribal-based program in which they would gain full access and control of GIS data. Such an extended system would require more hardware, staffing and training. The Colville project showed that GIS of this sophistication is not suitable for part-time operations but requires full-time systems analysts and programmers. Finally, the project raised concern that sensitive traditional knowledge, once stored in GIS, would neutralize traditional informal controls.
____________________________________________________________
27. United States: Tulalip Fisheries / Aerial Videography
PROJECT STATUS: Current.
LOCAL ORG: Tulalip Fisheries.
NATIONAL ORG: --
EXTERNAL ORG: --
DONOR AGENCY: --
CONTACT: Dave Somers, Tulalip Fisheries, 3901 Totem Beach Road, Marysville, WA 98272, USA. Tel: 206-653-4585 Fax: 206-653-1234.
REFERENCES: --
OBJECTIVE: To improve shellfish shoreline and riparian habitat management.
BACKGROUND: Tulalip land lies in the centre of the once abundant Puget Sound shellfish beds, of which 70% have been closed as a result of dairy cattle-related fecal bacteria pollution.
METHOD: The Tulalip are heavily involved in water quality assessment and the prevention of further pollution. They have developed a water quality assessment laboratory which is now qualified to do outside contractual work. They have also used a GIS for reservation land-use planning and water-quality studies. To obtain base-line data on fish habitat condition, Tulalip Fisheries have developed a technique using a video camera suspended from a weather balloon. The balloon is held by two people, one on either side of the stream, to prevent the camera twisting.
RESULT: The resulting imagery has been analyzed using a frame-grabber. It has proved useful, but problems with controlling the video camera from the ground have inhibited the Tulalip from taking full advantage of this aerial video technique.
____________________________________________________________
28. United States: Zuni Sustainable Resource Development Plan / GIS
PROJECT STATUS: Current.
LOCAL ORG: Zuni Nation.
NATIONAL ORG: U.S. Geological Survey.
EXTERNAL ORG: --
DONOR AGENCY: Ford Foundation.
CONTACT: Jim Enote, Zuni Nation, P.O. Box 339, Zuni, NM 87327, USA. Tel: 505-782-4481 Fax: 505-782-2700.
REFERENCES: Enote 1992.
OBJECTIVE: To recuperate the Zuni land base and create a sustainable resource use regime based upon Zuni traditions.
BACKGROUND: The Zuni reservation covers 170,000 acres of remote arid highlands. The population is 9,000, of whom 90% are Zuni. In 1981, the Zuni sued the U.S. for damage to the Zuni River watershed cause by upstream mismanagement. The Zuni won the case, and in 1990 Congress passed the Zuni Conservation Act which provided $17 million to set up a trust fund to be used for implementing the plan. The Act requires that Zuni resources be protected and managed sustainably.
METHOD: The watershed rehabilitation project is the largest in the U.S. and is being executed in collaboration with the U.S. Geological Survey. It calls for a computerized system for resource management and the training of Zuni professionals and technicians in the survey, inventory and collection of geomorphic and hydraulic data, their analysis for watershed modeling, and mobile river-bed analysis. An ARC/INFO GIS is being used as the information base for monitoring and managing the project.
RESULT: The Zuni Conservation project has become widely regarded as a model for reinforcing traditional and cultural values within the context of an advanced and complex land restoration project. Clear vision and authority by tribal leaders and project managers ensure that ultimate decisions are grounded in Zuni values and traditional practice.
____________________________________________________________
AFRICA
29. Ethiopia: Local Land Use Planning / Aerial Photography
PROJECT STATUS: Completed.
LOCAL ORG: --
NATIONAL ORG: --
EXTERNAL ORG: International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED).
DONOR AGENCY: Band Aid, Concern.
CONTACT: Dick Sandford, IIED, 3 Endsleigh Street, London WC1H 0DD U.K. Tel: 44-71-388-2117 Fax: 44-71-388-2826.
REFERENCES: Sandford 1989.
OBJECTIVE: To use aerial photography for planning resettlement and for involving settlers in the process.
BACKGROUND: Band Aid and Concern have been supporting two resettlement projects in Ethiopia since 1985 and were interested in understanding the effects of environmental factors and involving settlers in this process of reflection.
METHOD: The sites were photographed at a scale of 1:20,000. External consultants used the imagery to complete a conventional land capability survey, but photographs of this scale proved to be of limited use in communicating with the settlers. This problem was overcome when the photography was enlarged to a scale of 1:5,000 and formed into mosaics for each village resettlement area. None of the settlers had seen an aerial photograph before. But Sandford (1989) reports that they were able immediately to recognize their land and its boundaries, to identify significant ecological and social features, and to use the mosaics for conducting ground walks. Subsequently, the villagers, the NGOs and agricultural officials attended a land use planning workshop. The mosaics were introduced by the settlers and the agreed land use allocations were marked upon transparent acetate overlays. Sandford (1989) points out that aerial photography of this kind proved to be a useful medium for farmers to communicate and explain their knowledge and reasons for decisions to developers, and in turn enabled developers to gain useful and accurate information without walking each part of the land.
RESULT: One result has been the adoption of such photo mosaics as a tool for local communication as part of a longer term land use planning program by the Ministry of Agriculture.
____________________________________________________________
30. Guinea-Bissau: Wetlands / Aerial Photographs
PROJECT STATUS: Completed.
LOCAL ORG: Village of Co-Timate.
NATIONAL ORG: SHAS (Servicos de Hidraulica Agricola e Solos).
EXTERNAL ORG: --
DONOR AGENCY: --
CONTACT: Koos Neefjes, Environment & Development, OXFAM, 274 Banbury Road, Oxford 0X2 7DZ U.K. No tel/fax given: contact through IIED (proj. 28).
REFERENCES: Neefjes 1993.
OBJECTIVE: In Guinea-Bissau, farmers use traditional methods to convert mangrove swamps for rice cultivation by building "bolanhas" - polders with a system of dams and dikes designed to capture freshwater and prevent the inflow of seawater.
BACKGROUND: Aerial photographs and topographic maps were used in two cases: one to discuss future plans, the other to attempt to resolve a dispute over access to a newly built bolanha.
METHOD: For the first case a 1:50,000 map from the 1950's and a 1:30,000 aerial photograph from 1989 were taken to a village meeting to discuss the future construction and management of the bolanhas. The farmers were able to locate feature such as houses and paths in the photography but not the smaller dikes and dams. In the second case, the same photography was used but in conjunction with a 1:5,000 scale map. This time a magnifying glass was used for examining the 1:30,000 imagery, and it yielded more useful information.
RESULT: Neefjes (1993) concluded that 1:30,000 aerial photographs were of limited use for detailed mapping in a local setting but the use of a magnifying glass to increase the scale improved its utility. He notes that a photograph of 1:30,000 scale can be enlarged and printed on tracing paper at a scale of 1:5,000 for $175.
____________________________________________________________
31. Kenya: Ukambani Mapping Land-Use Changes / PRA
PROJECT STATUS: Current.
LOCAL ORG: Ukambani.
NATIONAL ORG: African Centre for Technology Studies.
EXTERNAL ORG: --
DONOR AGENCY: World Wildlife Fund Osborn Centre and United Nations University, Marsh Institute Critical Environmental Zones Project.
CONTACT: Dianne Rocheleau, Clark University, 950 Main Street, Worcester, MA, 01610-1477, USA. Tel: 508-793-7526 Fax: 508-793-8842.
REFERENCES: Rocheleau 1994.
OBJECTIVE: To use maps and sketches to gather information from local people and to involve them in decision-making processes.
BACKGROUND: The project is entitled "Policy History, Land Use Change and the Future of the Dry Forest in Ukambani: Case Study and Analysis of Alternative Options for the Future." Its basic proposition is that the pressures causing changes in rural social and economic patterns are also affecting the biodiversity that is linked to local land use patterns. One cannot be treated separately from the other. The project seeks to elucidate these connections and look for ways in which they can be factored into local decision-making.
METHOD: The approach uses maps in a way similar to Participatory Rural Appraisal. For three communities, histories of changes in land use and landscape were constructed through discussions based on maps, sketches and oral accounts. These served to illustrate the linkages between development and environmental policies and local changes and elicited suggestions from villagers about future activities.
RESULT: This produced an account of these historical experiences as well as suggestions from the communities for the future of their landscapes and for resource use and management.
____________________________________________________________
32. Kenya: Machakos Land Use Changes / PRA, GIS
PROJECT STATUS: Commencing.
LOCAL ORG: --
NATIONAL ORG: African Centre for Technology Studies, University of Nairobi, National Museum of Kenya.
EXTERNAL ORG: New England Science Center.
DONOR AGENCY: National Science Foundation, USA.
CONTACT: Dianne Rocheleau, Department of Geography, Clark University, 950 Main Street, Worcester, MA 01610-1477, USA. Tel: 508-793-7176 Fax: 508-793-8842.
REFERENCES: Rocheleau 1994.
OBJECTIVE: "To identify the landscape characteristics that promote maintenance of biodiversity in rapidly changing rural land use systems" (Rocheleau 1994).
BACKGROUND: Machakos District is a heavily populated mosaic of villages, agricultural land, savannah and woodland experiencing rapid changes.
METHOD: Sources include satellite imagery, aerial photographs, oral history and local sketch maps. Project work combines local participatory research methodologies with conventional field survey and sampling techniques. Data from aerial photos from 1948 to 1985 will be combined with local histories to generate a time series analysis of land use changes, using an IDRISI GIS.
RESULT: The intended result is a typology that reflects habitat values, human use and human impact on biodiversity.
____________________________________________________________
33. Kenya: Aerial Photography and Household Studies / Aerial Photography
PROJECT STATUS: Completed.
LOCAL ORG: --
NATIONAL ORG: --
EXTERNAL ORG: Oxford Forestry Institute.
DONOR AGENCY: --
CONTACT: No address, contact through IIED (proj. 28).
REFERENCES: Dewees 1989.
OBJECTIVE: To take and use aerial photos for the identification of specific and complete small-holdings.
METHOD: Flight lines were planned on 1:50,000 maps. A Nikon FG 35mm camera with a 50mm lens was clamped to the window of a Cessna 152. Reversal film was used and slides were printed as 2cm x 17cm (Scale 1:2,000) for field use. Planned height above ground (HAG) was 650m.
Two problems were encountered: one was maintaining a constant HAG over areas of high relief. Aircraft altimeters (and GPS) give absolute height above a constant sea level. For high altitude aerial photography, this problem is minimized, but it is amplified in the case of low level surveys. The problem is not so acute when the photography is being used for recognizing certain features or marking boundaries, but it is significant when measuring areas on the ground, as the HAG directly affects the scale of the image. Dewees (1989) found that the scales on the images they produced varied between 1:10,000 and 1:15,000. Given the lens/HAG combination reported by Dewees, the constant image scale should have been 1:13,000. This problem has been resolved elsewhere in Kenya by using a radar altimeter, an instrument costing $5,000-$10,000. The second problem was maintaining the transects, the flight lines marked on the 1:50,000 sheets, owing to the lack of conspicuous ground features. This problem always arises on conventional aerial surveys and is the reason why survey navigation is a highly skilled craft. However, this problem is becoming obsolete with the advent of GPS.
RESULT: Dewees was able to map small-holdings to an accuracy of 100m, corresponding closely to GPS accuracy. The prints worked well in household interviews, which aimed at noting specific land uses and delineating small-holdings. They were also found useful in correcting the biases inherent in making transect walkers, where there is a tendency for field workers to walk contour line or ridge tops and follow established paths. Features could be noted on the photographs first and transects planned accordingly.
____________________________________________________________
34. Namibia: Ju/'hoansi Bushmanland Land-Use Planning / PRA, GPS, GIS
PROJECT STATUS: Completed.
LOCAL ORG: Environmental Planning Committee (EPC) of Bushmanland (Nyae Nyae)
NATIONAL ORG: Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Namibia Nature Foundation
EXTERNAL ORG: --
DONOR AGENCY: Biodiversity Support Program, World Wildlife Fund (WWF) LIFE Project (USAID-funded)
CONTACT: Jo Tagg, Natural Resources Planning Officer, Directorate of Environmental Affairs, Private Bag 13306, Windhoek, Namibia, Benjamin !Ai!ae !Aice, PO Box 45, Grootfontein, Namibia
REFERENCES: --
OBJECTIVE: The two major objectives were: 1) to integrate Ju/'hoansi local land-use planning with national land-use planning, and to assist the Ju/'hoansi in articulation of their needs, problems, plans, and resource management practices to outsiders and to government.
BACKGROUND: The Bushman of Namibia have mostly been dispossessed of their former land by other groups and are dependent on wage labor from farmers and government, as well as food-aid schemes. The Ju/'hoansi of eastern Tsumkwe district in north eastern Namibia are one of the few Bushman groups to retain some control over their own land, ironically because the area was a tribal homeland under Namibia's pre-independence apartheid system. The Ju/'hoansi still depend to a large extent on gathering of bush food and hunting, and they are developing subsistence livestock, millet, and vegetable farming. The area supports several big game species including elephant and the major predators and its pan system is a seasonal wetland of international and regional importance. The Ju/'hoansi use regulated burning as a resource management tool and have a traditional system of tenurial rights to regulate access to particular resource areas. Outsiders have not appreciated the sophistication of this system. In the 1980s, government plans to declare a game reserve in the area were halted because the people would have lost their land rights. Now government is passing legislation which will give communal area residents rights over wildlife and tourism.
METHOD: PRA surveys were done by an outside researcher in collaboration with two Ju/'hoansi Community Rangers who were trained to elicit detailed land-use information linked to sketch maps of local resource areas owned and managed by particular households. GPS was used to geocode resource-use locations so that local information could be integrated with more general regional information to create district land-use plans. The information was further developed as communities used existing data for community-based Environmental Impact Assessments during community and EPC discussions of potential development activities and optional land-use changes. One aim was to provide GIS-generated maps which could be used by the Ju/'hoansi as well as outsiders.
RESULT: Sketch maps and surveys were completed in key areas, but a workshop to integrate local data with regional land-use planning proved unsuccessful. The raw data and resource maps collected by the outside researcher have been left with the community, but no GIS maps were completed. However, a new project is combining the existing information with the new data gathered by community rangers and others in a GIS. Maps are being produced which are available for community and outside use and which can be used for locating resource areas and participatory planning of resource management actions. The map production takes place in the capital, but the methodology is being developed with the community rangers in the field. A system of grids and symbols for local resource maps is being developed so that community rangers can plot information themselves.
____________________________________________________________
ASIA
35. Indonesia: Asmat Traditional Forest Use / GIS
PROJECT STATUS: Current.
LOCAL ORG: --
NATIONAL ORG: --
EXTERNAL ORG: Conservation International.
DONOR AGENCY: --
CONTACT: Cynthia Mackie, Conservation International, 1015 18th Street, NW, Suite 1000, Washington, DC 20036, USA. Tel: 202-429-5660 Fax: 202-887-5188.
REFERENCES: --
OBJECTIVE: To map traditional forest use, ecological knowledge and occupancy by sketch mapping, then on a GIS.
BACKGROUND: The Asmat occupy a 2,000,000 ha tidal swampland along the coast of Irian Jaya, a complex of mangroves, lagoons and freshwater swamps. They are famous for carvings made from the hardwood trees growing in this sensitive and changeable habitat. Timber concessions have now been permitted in their forests. However, conventional logging machinery cannot operate in this swampy terrain and the concessionaires are obliged to rely upon Asmat people to cut and move the trees manually, causing divisive social impacts within Asmat communities. A few years ago, a group of Asmat contacted Conservation International (CI) while exhibiting their carvings in the U.S. They expressed an interest in acquiring a GIS to assist in ongoing efforts to document the traditional use of their lands.
METHOD: While the Asmat data is compatible with GIS, the Dutch maps used for base maps are old and inaccurate. A project has been designed whereby CI will generate a base map and the Asmat will draft overlays showing their resources, their names, their patterns of use and clan boundaries. CI will also sponsor ethnobiological research and Asmat leaders will learn GIS techniques. The Asmat also plan to establish their own development NGO and a national NGO will assist in this effort.
RESULT: --
____________________________________________________________
36. Indonesia: Bentian Dayak / Basic Mapping
PROJECT STATUS: Current.
LOCAL ORG: Sempekat Jato Rempangan.
NATIONAL ORG: PLASMA.
EXTERNAL ORG: Endangered Peoples Project (EPP), Canada.
DONOR AGENCY: Canada: Environmental and Development Support Program.
CONTACT: Longgena Ginting, PLASMA, Jl. Pertahanan Kompleks Yeschar No. 1, P.O. Box 1/Smrbb, Samarinda 75119, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Tel/Fax: 62-541-35753.
REFERENCES: Royo 1994.
OBJECTIVE: To use oral history and traditional knowledge in order to to make sketch maps of Jelmu Sibak customary land and its boundaries.
METHOD: PLASMA, a community development group, is engaged in learning and disseminating sketch-mapping techniques. With the assistance of the EPP, a community training workshop has been completed and PLASMA intends to hold other training sessions in the district.
RESULT: The mapping exercise was locally recognized as a vehicle for community-based planning. It helped to settle local tensions over land and also indicated how the community as a whole could defend its customary rights against external interests.
____________________________________________________________
37. Indonesia: Bukit Baka-Bukit Raya National Park / Basic Mapping
PROJECT STATUS: Current.
LOCAL ORG: --
NATIONAL ORG: Indonesian Ministry of Forestry/Natural Resource Management Project - USAID.
EXTERNAL ORG: Associates in Rural Development, USA.
DONOR AGENCY: USAID.
CONTACT: Associates in Rural Development, Jl. Mediun 3, Central Jakarta, Indonesia. Tel: 62-21-390-5841 Fax: 62-21-327-301.
REFERENCES: NRMP 1993.
OBJECTIVE: To get a spatial picture of traditional land use, the land-tenure system and traditional boundaries of the Dayak communities situated on the periphery of Bukit Baka-Bukit Raya National Park in order to develop a park management plan and to plan community development activities in the support zones outside the park while developing and testing new traditional forest area concepts.
BACKGROUND: Dayak communities have been practicing swidden cultivation for generations in this mountainous region on the border of West and Central Kalimantan. The park was established in 1992. It is surrounded and abutted by several logging concessions that have been operating since the early 1980s on the traditional lands of several Dayak communities. Although there are no communities within the park, several village territories extend into the park. The NRM project is working with local communities, the Ministry of Forests, and the concessionaires to plan a local development program based upon traditional Dayak forest use practices.
METHOD: Villagers first drew their territory free-hand on blank paper. These drawings were used to plan a rapid field surveying strategy and to pose questions to help fit the drawing onto a topographic map. The villagers' sketches were based upon the local river network and were found to be extremely detailed and correct in sequence and relative size and positions of rivers. It is a mountainous area, so where topographic maps were available, triangulation was mainly used to locate features. Where no topographic maps were available, field surveys (compass and chain) were made in strategic parts of the territory in order to better proportion the sketches. After the base map of natural features and local names was completed, thematic maps of land use, land tenure, historic migration, etc., were sketched on tracing paper during evening village meetings.
RESULT: The maps have been used by community members to show their land use and historical occupancy through locations of sacred sites, family-owned tree groves, hunting and gathering territories and swidden rotations. The maps will be used to plan community development programs and in discussions with neighboring communities, concessionaires and forestry staff.
____________________________________________________________
38. Indonesia: Kayan Mentarang Reserve / PRA, GPS, GIS, Aerial Imagery
PROJECT STATUS: Current.
LOCAL ORG: --
NATIONAL ORG: Indonesian Ministry of Forestry, World Wide Fund for Nature - Indonesia Programme (WWF-Indonesia), PHPA, Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia (LIPI).
EXTERNAL ORG: --
DONOR AGENCY: WWF-Indonesia.
CONTACT: Jeff Fox, East-West Center, Program on Environment, 1777 East-West Road, Honolulu, HI 96848, USA. Tel: 808-944-7248 Fax: 808-944-7298.
Tim Jessup or Frank Momberg, WWF-Indonesia, Jl. Pela 3, Gandari Utara, Jakarta Selatan 12079, Indonesia. Tel: 62-21-720-3095 Fax: 62-21-739-5907.
WWF-Kayan Mentarang, c/o Mathilde Snel, Jl. Katamso 12, Samarinda 75117, Kalimantan Timur, Indonesia Tel/Fax: 541-43970.
Perlindungan Hutan dan Pelestarian Alam/Protection of Forests and Preservation of Nature (PHPA), Indonesian Ministry of Forests.
REFERENCES: Royo 1994, Momberg et al 1994.
OBJECTIVE: To gather information on local resource utilization for zoning a national park.
BACKGROUND: Kayan Mentarang is currently a Nature Reserve. The objective of this WWF-supported project is to change its status to that of a National Park. This change would enable the 10,000 indigenous people living in the area to obtain some rights of access to resources within the park, in which zones would be created for hunting, gathering and swidden cultivation.
METHOD: PRA will be used to generate local maps of traditional practice within Kayan Mentarang. 1:50,000 radar images and aerial photographs will be used in producing base sketch maps. GPS will be used for local people to position features entered on the sketch maps during PRA sessions. Biophysical data will be added using GIS.
RESULT: There has been some local concern over the production of maps with this exotic technology. It has been felt that the mapping process enabled outsiders to control information over local resource use which had previously been reserved to the community. These doubts could be reduced if local people were more involved in the process of map production, and if the aims of mapping and ownership of the maps were more clearly articulated and understood.
____________________________________________________________
39. Indonesia: Kenyah Uma Lung, Long Uli Village / GPS, GIS
STATUS: Completed.
LOCAL ORG: --
NATIONAL ORG.: World Wide Fund for Nature - Indonesia Programme (WWF-Indonesia), Indonesian Ministry of Forestry.
EXTERNAL ORG.: East-West Center Environment Program.
DONOR: Ford Foundation.
CONTACT: Jeff Fox, East-West Center, Program on Environment, 1777 East-West Road, Honolulu, HI 96848, USA. Tel: 808-944-7248 Fax: 808-944-7298.
REFERENCES: Sirait 1993.
OBJECTIVE: To map the customary land of Long Uli Village.
BACKGROUND: Recently the people of Long Uli found their traditional land overlaid with a Forest Concession and a Nature Reserve, both designated on maps with a scale too small to show either the village or the boundaries of its customary land.
METHOD: The 18,231 ha of village land is divided into areas of both communal and individual ownership, but most decisions about resource use are made communally. To anticipate border disputes, meetings were held with neighboring villages and consensus reached on the purposes of the work.
The approach was to map customary land using oral history and traditional knowledge and to use GPS for georeferencing. Local research assistants gathered data from knowledgeable informants and entered it on sketch maps and topographic maps, using a compass and altimeter to derive locations. Over ten days, 117 GPS locations were derived from the sketch maps and extrapolated to the topographic map. Where forest canopy was dense, the GPS antenna was raised on a 5m pole. Two GPS units enabled improved positional accuracy through using the differential GPS technique.
RESULT: The final map was entered into a GIS (PC ARC/INFO) and the boundaries of the forest concession and nature reserve were superimposed upon the customary lands. This revealed that in fact, under traditional management, 12,173 ha were already protected as community forest, whereas the areas designated as nature reserves protected areas covered only 7,154 ha. "Just the process of recording the villagers' knowledge of their land and their history is empowering... This research does not mean anything unless it is taken back and used by the villagers. The maps give the villagers some means of communicating with other land users, and some negotiating platform if there are conflicts" (Sirait 1993).
____________________________________________________________
40. Indonesia: Wasur National Park / Sketch Mapping, GPS
PROJECT STATUS: Current.
LOCAL ORG: Wasur National Park, Merauke and other communities.
NATIONAL ORG: World Wide Fund for Nature - Indonesia Programme (WWF-Indonesia).
EXTERNAL ORG: --
DONOR AGENCY: --
CONTACT: Timothy Jessup, WWF-Indonesia, Jl. Pela 3, Gandaria Utara, P.O. Box 7928 JKSKM, Jakarta Selatan 12079, Indonesia. Tel: 62-21-720-3095 Fax: 62-21-739-5907.
REFERENCES: Bowe 1994.
OBJECTIVE: To develop plans and methods for the continuance of traditional resource use in the park through community consultations.
BACKGROUND: National policy and legislation prohibits both habitation and resource use within protected areas. The Project in Wasur National Park in Irian Jaya had been successful in securing certain local rights despite these prohibitions. The focus in this part of the Project was upon activities in the park core zone, where all activities except scientific research are prohibited in principle.
METHOD: Extensive community consultations were coupled with local mapping of traditional activities and boundaries. The local WWF forester listened for hours to elders singing in order to recall the boundaries -which were afterwards located with the help of younger villagers and GPS. The villagers also created a ground map, 30m x 30m, using leaves, vines and sago fronds as symbols of trails, land uses, tree groves and sacred sites. These sites were then fixed on a GPS-based map. For consultations, the villagers' map was used, and the results transferred to the GPS map. Project staff discussed the core zone with the communities. The park administration is most concerned about the impacts of hunting. The villagers acknowledge the concept of the core as a reservoir of animals for depleted areas. However, they pointed out the need to control the size of the wild pig population if their habitat is to be maintained in its current state, an issue also recognized by the park. It was felt that hunting issues relative to the park core could be resolved.
RESULT: The mapping and consultations resulted in the communities developing a set of core zone rules, which provide for regular visits to sago gardens for tending and harvesting, unrestricted access to sacred sites, and en route travel to visit relatives across the Papua New Guinea border. In addition, a few border revisions excluded significant hunting and fishing sites. These proposed changes and core zone rules have been submitted to the Forestry Department and are still under review.
____________________________________________________________
41. Nepal: Land Use Planning / Aerial Photography
PROJECT STATUS: Complete.
LOCAL ORG: Belpatha Village, Nepal.
NATIONAL ORG: --
EXTERNAL ORG: --
DONOR AGENCY: --
CONTACT: --
REFERENCES: Carson 1987.
OBJECTIVE: To demonstrate the utility of enlarged aerial photography as a medium for communication between villagers and planners, that provides a more appropriate reflection of landscape and social complexities compared to topographic maps.
BACKGROUND: Carson (1987) advocates strong community participation in village-level planning designed to deal with environmental degradation resulting from population and economic pressures upon traditional practices and resources. On several counts, he holds that aerial photography is a more appropriate medium for this than topographic maps.
METHOD: For a planning exercise in the village of Belpatha, standard 1:20,000 panchromatic aerial photography was enlarged to 1:5,000. With a ground coverage of 1150m x 1150m (132 ha) a single image is usually sufficient to cover an average Nepalese village and surrounding agricultural and foraging land. Carson points out that to produce a topographic map of this coverage and scale produced would cost $1,000, compared to $20 for the single enlarged photograph.
RESULT: Carson found that rural Nepalese with no formal training were adept at interpreting aerial photographs. He attributes this to the time they spend gazing down upon their villages from the surrounding mountains. He considers aerial photography to be an appropriate medium for communication between planners and villagers, especially for those people who cannot read.
Finally, Carson proposes that the density and complexity of ecological, economic and social information contained in aerial photographs obliges planners to recognize these interconnections and to respond with an interdisciplinary and integrated approach to community-based development.
____________________________________________________________
42. Papua New Guinea: Resource Appraisal / Aerial Photograph
PROJECT STATUS: Completed.
LOCAL ORG: --
NATIONAL ORG: Department of Agriculture.
EXTERNAL ORG: Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex, U.K.
DONOR AGENCY: World Bank.
CONTACT: --
REFERENCES: Mearns 1989.
OBJECTIVE: To assess how people used, valued and gained access to local lands which had been pre-classified by external agencies as Land Mapping Units (LMUs) and to discover what social factors need to be taken into account in realizing the physical potential signified by LMUs.
BACKGROUND: Southern Highlands Rural Development Project (SHRDP) included a conventional land evaluation to generate LMUs (a conventional FAO classification) as a basis for agricultural and rural development. Mearns (1989) sought to discover how social factors mediated local decisions on how to use LMUs. The local discussions focused upon clans as the basic social unit governing access to land.
METHOD: Panchromatic aerial prints of 23cm x 23cm (scale 1:4,000) worked well as a medium for conversations with clan leaders and elders and with discrete groups of women and men. These conversations focused on local preferences for using the pre-classified LMUs to discover the degree of correspondence between these local intentions and the potential signified by the LMU categorization. These interviews were carried out on local vantage points, such as ridge tops, from which the photographed land could be seen. The images' most important use was for walking clan boundaries with elders and marking these directly on the photos with chinagraph pencils. Common boundaries were walked twice, once with each neighboring clan.
RESULT: The photographs proved a valuable asset in discussions of local land disputes.
____________________________________________________________
43. Philippines: Ancestral Domain Mapping / Basic Mapping, GPS, GIS
PROJECT STATUS: Current.
LOCAL ORG: Communities and confederations in many different parts of the Philippines, including the Luzon Cordillera, Mindoro, and Mindanao.
NATIONAL ORG: Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR), Center for Development Programs for the Cordillera (CDPC) Philippine Association for Inter-Cultural Development (PAFID), National Mapping and Resource Information Authority (NAMRIA), Natural Resources Management Program (NRMP), Legal Rights Center (LRC), PANLIPI, and others.
EXTERNAL ORG: Biodiversity Support Program, Biodiversity Conservation Network.
DONOR AGENCY: USAID, Ford Foundation, Asian Development Bank.
CONTACT:Dennis Uba, UNAC, 59 C. Salvador Street, Loyola Heights, Quezon City, 1108 Metro Manila, Philippines. Tel/Fax: 632-985-538.
LRC, National Office, 3rd Floor Puno Building, Kalayaan Avenue, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines. Tel: 632-922-32-13 Fax: 632-95-21-97.
PAFID, 71 Malakas Street, Diliman, Quezon City, Philippines. Tel/Fax: 632-984-580.
PANLIPI, Room 303, JGS Building, #30 Sct. Tuason corn. Dr. Lazcano, Quezon City, Philippines. Tel/Fax: 632-842-5511.
Del McCluskey, U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) Manila, Philippines Mission, c/o Department of State, Washington, DC 20523-8600. Tel: 632-521-7116 Fax: 632-522-2512.
Janis Alcorn, Biodiversity Support Program, c/o World Wildlife Fund, 1250 24th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20037, USA. Tel: 202-861-8313 Fax: 202-861-8324.
REFERENCES: CDPC 1994, Royo 1994, PAFID 1994.
OBJECTIVE: To determine and map boundaries of Indigenous Cultural Communities (ICCs), to use these to obtain Certificates of Ancestral Domain as vehicles for recognizing indigenous peoples' tenure, and to ensure indigenous peoples' participation in sustainable development of the natural and forest resources.
BACKGROUND: The absence of tenurial security has prevented ICC's from exercising management and control over their traditional lands - which include most of the surviving forests of the Philippines. A number of projects, current or in the proposal stage, are designed to take advantage of a new program of the DENR which will respond to applications for tenure provided the geographical information is presented in a specific form. PAFID, tribal leaders, and other upland NGOs have agreed to collaborate in supporting the mapping of ancestral domains for ICCs. The PAFID program is described below.
METHOD: Preliminary Delineation: With maximum participation by tribal elders, the program aims to identify the preliminary boundaries on NAMRIA topographic maps, and to achieve verification of these preliminary boundaries by a group representing PAFID, DENR and tribal elders of the ICC.
Community Validation: The ICC will review and validate the preliminary delineation and proceed to discuss a community development plan. The plan and the boundary maps will be used as the legal basis for recognizing ancestral domain.
Supporting Activities: Community/NGO seminars and workshops on land-tenure options for the uplands, training of NGO and local workers in techniques for perimeter surveys and delineation which will introduce conventional transit methods and GPS, and examination of ways in which this technology can be combined with traditional methods for boundary delineation and observance. The program of CDPC (CDPC 1994) follows similar lines, stressing the importance of tenure as a precondition for local generation of development and resource management/land-use plans.
RESULT: The results expected from these projects will be recognition of ancestral domains and long-term sustainable forest management based upon secure community-based tenure.
____________________________________________________________
44. Philippines: Cagayan de Oro / Sketch Mapping
PROJECT STATUS: Current.
LOCAL ORG: Fishing and farming communities.
NATIONAL ORG: Centre for Alternative Rural Technology (CART).
EXTERNAL ORG: --
DONOR AGENCY: Internal.
CONTACT: Orlando R. Ravanera, CART, 3rd Floor, Comfoods Building, Cor. Osmena-Hayes Streets, Cagayan de Oro City, Philippines. Tel: 63-8822-5462/8822-726933.
REFERENCES: Royo 1994.
OBJECTIVE: To establish the communities' access to, control of and/or ownership of resources and to alleviate poverty by using a community-based and integrated approach to improve watershed management.
METHOD: Natural resource and farming areas will be sketch-mapped, leading to border dispute resolution and court litigation where appropriate. Supporting this will be organization and mobilization of the communities, as well as issue and policy advocacy.
RESULT: Expected results include the rehabilitation of watersheds, reduced upland migration, increased farmer income and increased capacity of communities to manage their resources.
____________________________________________________________
45. Philippines: Iraya Mangyar, Mindoro / Basic Mapping, PRA
PROJECT STATUS: Completed.
LOCAL ORG: MAL-ANGGATAN, MAL-AMBUYAN, BATAY-KAPYAAN, of the Iraya Mangyan communities.
NATIONAL ORG: Organization for Training Research and Development Foundation (OTRADEV).
EXTERNAL ORG: --
DONOR AGENCY: Internal funding.
CONTACT: OTRADEV Foundation, c/o Aleli Bawagan, Nilda Fortunado, Dolores Llagas, No. 48 Tindalo Street, Project 3 (1102), Quezon City, Philippines.
REFERENCES: Royo 1994.
OBJECTIVE: To establish boundaries for Iraya Mangyan communities and to establish environmental baselines for reforestation, soil and water conservation and grazing lands.
BACKGROUND: Mangyans are swidden agriculturalists who have been pushed by colonization and trade from the coasts to the mountains. Much of their ancestral land, forests and farms has been lost to commercial logging. Their lands have been degraded to the point where their traditional management systems are no longer viable. Because of this the present focus is on the recuperation of their resources.
METHOD: OTRADEV organized a PRA approach which conformed to the ancestral domain framework (proj. 39) and employed sketch mapping.
RESULT: A five-year environmental rehabilitation and community resource management program was prepared. In addition, the project prepared the community for furthering its ancestral domain claim for eventual delineation.
____________________________________________________________
46. Philippines: Kalahan Reserve, Nueva Vizcaya / Sketch Mapping
PROJECT STATUS: Completed.
LOCAL ORG: Kalahan Educational Foundation.
NATIONAL ORG: Upland NGOs Assistance Committee (UNAC).
EXTERNAL ORG: --
DONOR AGENCY: Internal.
CONTACT :Pastor Delbert Rice, Kalahan Educational Foundation, Imugan, Santa Fe, Nueva Vizcaya, Philippines.
REFERENCES: Royo 1994.
OBJECTIVE: To secure the perimeters of the Kalahan Reserve.
BACKGROUND: Kalahan Reserve was surveyed by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) in 1973, but was not officially confirmed. Therefore, a verifiable map was designed to serve the needs of the Kalahan people in managing resources and resolving land disputes.
METHOD: Working with privately trained local people, the community made sketch maps as part of development planning. The Kalahan Foundation used its own foresters and surveyors to produce triangulated parcel surveys from these maps which were accurate enough to meet DENR standards.
RESULT: The self-generated map was used by the Kalahan Foundation for its own developmental purposes. But the Foundation pointed out that the maps could not be submitted to the government, because the DENR is interested only in boundary maps made to its own specifications.
____________________________________________________________
47. Philippines: Palawan / GIS
PROJECT STATUS: Current.
LOCAL ORG: National Tribal Filipinos Organization of Palawan (NATRIPAL).
NATIONAL ORG: Department Environment and Natural Resources (DENR).
EXTERNAL ORG: Clark University.
DONOR AGENCY: Biodiversity Support Program, Biodiversity Conservation Network.
CONTACT: Atty. Gerthie Mayo-Anda (NGO Rep.) Unit 2, Garcellana Complex, Rizal Avenue, Puerto Princesa City, Palawan, Philippines.
NATRIPAL/Tribal Filipino Apostolate (TFA), c/o Apostolic Vicariate of Palawan, Quasi Parish of San Jose, 5300 Puerto Princesa City, Palawan, Philippines.
Frank Hicks, BCN Regional Representative/Philippines, 151 B. Gonzales Street, Quezon City, 1108 Metro Manila, Philippines. Tel: 632-992-017 Fax: 632-984-997.
John Auble, IDRISI Project, Clark University, 950 Main Street, Worcester, MA 01610-1477. Tel: 508-849-2310 Fax: 508-793-8842.
REFERENCES: Royo 1994.
OBJECTIVE: To use GIS to both integrate and locate points of conflict between three overall project objectives: 1) preservation and development of indigenous communities, 2) environmental conservation, and 3) creation of economic opportunity and to use GIS as a comprehensive assessment and planning tool shared by groups with potentially divergent interests who seek to arrive at a common perspective by virtue of involving these groups in a shared purpose.
BACKGROUND: This project is designed to deal with the same situation confronted by other Philippine projects. The methods differs in that it proposes to use GIS.
METHOD: The main method will be Extended Gap Analysis, which adds socio-economic data to the biophysical data covered by the more limited Gap Analysis. The project has wide scope and presumably much of the analytical and GIS work will be done at the NGO rather than community level. Satellite and aerial imagery will be used for generalized mapping of landscape. Information on elevation will be obtained from topographic maps. GPS will be used to obtain supplementary geocoded data, including geocoded socio-economic data from local communities. This will include ancestral boundaries as well as land-use practices within those boundaries.
RESULT: It is expected that this GIS-based process will go beyond straightforward data analysis and serve as a tool for conflict resolution among competing interest groups.
____________________________________________________________
48. Thailand: Participatory Land Use Planning / 3-D Maps
PROJECT STATUS: On going.
LOCAL ORG: Three pilot project villages.
NATIONAL ORG: Chiang Mai University (CMU), Royal Forestry Department (RFD).
EXTERNAL ORG: --
DONOR AGENCY: Ford Foundation.
CONTACT: Dr. Uraivan Tan-Kim-Yong, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand. Tel: 66-53-221699, x3573 Fax: 66-53-222763.
REFERENCES: Uraivan 1990.
OBJECTIVE: To introduce participatory methodologies to improve relationships between farmers within hill communities and also between the communities and the RFD.
BACKGROUND: Recent changes in settlement and land-use patterns have precipitated tensions between groups in the hill regions. People from highland and lowland zones have been migrating into an intermediate zone, between 600m and 1500m. Deserted Karen villages have been occupied by non-Karen. Participatory methods have been used over the last four years to address the resulting friction between these communities and the Karen and the increasing pressure upon intermediate zone resources.
METHOD: First, a 1:5,000 base map was produced by an anthropologist and a geographer from existing maps and aerial photos. For this, and for local consultation, the 1:50,000 scale photos were enlarged to 1:5,000. The two then worked with villagers to update the map with current land-use practices. Combined with three-dimensional models, these maps were effective in animating local discussions over land-use conflicts. They exposed activities of individual landholders to open discussion, providing an objective focus which may transcend cultural differences. They also illustrated the interactive effects of land-use practices on adjacent lands. Uraivan (1990) found that "group visualization" stimulated fruitful local cooperative efforts and decision-making.
RESULT: "Visibility is critical in stimulating the meeting to share common concerns... Parties proceed to compromise on their perceived problems when the same set of information on maps and aerial photos provide visible relationships of land-use patterns and ecological impacts" (ibid).
____________________________________________________________
49. Thailand: Sam Mun Watershed Planning / 3-D Maps
PROJECT STATUS: Completed.
LOCAL ORG: Sam Mun communities.
NATIONAL ORG: Royal Forest Department.
EXTERNAL ORG: --
DONOR AGENCY: --
CONTACT: Dr. Uraivan Tan-Kim-Yong, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand. Tel: 66-53-221699, x3573 Fax: 66-53-222763.
REFERENCES: Poffenberger and McGean 1994.
OBJECTIVE: To develop community-based forest management regimes based on cooperation between forest agencies and local groups.
BACKGROUND: The 200,000 ha Sam Mun watershed is a critical source of water for central Thailand. People from six language groups live in 60 villages, many of them immigrants bringing new strategies for land use, and sometimes conflict, to the valleys. People living in the intermediate slopes suffer from upstream deforestation and further migratory pressure from downstream.
METHOD: "The Sam Mun watershed strategy adopted an unusual approach by deciding that communities must be given rights and responsibilities to effectively stabilize and manage the forest environment" (Poffenberger & McGean 1993). In 1987, two community organizers (COs) took up residence in the watershed. Two years passed before they overcame local suspicions and started work. They organized monthly meetings of community working groups, microwatershed planning by village committees and a coordinating network. For local discussions, the COs and villagers constructed three-dimensional models from topographical maps and aerial photographs. Each model took 2-3 weeks to make: cutting, gluing and painting the cardboard layers.
RESULT: "The interactive process of creating the three-dimensional maps... helped the community focus its attention on the spatial location of problems and management options. The maps have cultivated a keen sense of ownership, interest and responsibility among the village members, assisting them in visually understanding the upstream-downstream river linkages and serving as discussion tools for land-use planning at monthly meetings" (ibid).
____________________________________________________________
50. Thailand: Karen Natural Resources Management Planning / 3-D Maps
PROJECT STATUS: Completed.
LOCAL ORG: Villages of Laiwo Sub-district, Kanchanaburi Province.
NATIONAL ORG:Wildlife Fund Thailand (WFT), Royal Forest Department (RFD).
EXTERNAL ORG: Chiang Mai University.
DONOR AGENCY: Biodiversity Support Program, USAID.
CONTACT: Surapon Duangkhae or Chan-ek Tangsubutr, Wildlife Fund Thailand, 251/88/90 Phaholyothin Road, Bangkhen, Bangkok 10220, Thailand, Tel: 66-2-552-2111, 66-2-552-2790 Fax: 66-2-552-6083.
REFERENCES: --
OBJECTIVE: To produce three dimensional (3-D) maps of the six village clusters of Laiwo Subdistrict located inside the Huay Kha Khaeng-Thung Yai World Heritage Site in order to 1) promote participatory land-use planning and to 2) discuss Karen resource management with government agencies and GEF project teams in light of proposals to resettle Karen outside the Wildlife Sanctuary.
BACKGROUND: Karen have lived in the forests near Three Pagoda Pass for several hundred years, but are now faced with possible resettlement by a World Bank Global Environment Facility (GEF) biodiversity project. The mapping effort was part of a larger project to provide information requested by RFD to justify its provisional decision to allow the Karen to continue to live in the forests of Western Thung Yai. The project objectives focus on strengthening local people's ability to defend forests in partnership with sincere government initiatives. WFT hopes to reverse the present policy trend of moving local populations and provide a clear example and model to show how local communities can participate in genuine and long-term conservation activities. Other project activities include demographic and socio-economic surveys, historical research, plant and animal baseline surveys, cultural support activities, study tours for Karen to visit other forest-based communities in Thailand, and policy seminars.
METHOD: Following the methodology created by Dr. Uraivan at Chiang Mai University (proj. 48,49), topographic maps were used as a pattern for creating large three dimensional maps from layers of thick posterboard cut on contours, then glued together and painted to indicate residential areas, land use, forests, paths, and waterways. Karen project staff interviewed village households and Karen Buddhist priests to map current land use and sacred areas, and to develop a natural resource management plan that builds on their traditional land use.
RESULT: Maps were completed and presented to a province-level meeting with the Royal Forest Department and other concerned agencies. Publicity about the mapping and other project components led to study tours from other parts of Thailand and Vietnam through the Regional Community Forestry Center (RECOFT) in Bangkok. Village opinion is that maps are most useful for communicating with outsiders who are not familiar with Karen rights and their traditional use of the forest, but the Karen are also using them to plan intensification of agriculture with assistance from northern Karen communities who plant on terraces (not a tradition in this area). Discussions of historical events associated with the landscape were especially animated and provided a means for young people to learn history. The maps are also useful to discuss wildlife movements and poaching activities with RFD forest guards. Border police have found the maps so useful they have borrowed them occasionally for use in their helicopters.
____________________________________________________________
This section summarizes cases included in the survey, but in which mapping or geomatics were not the main objective, and for which limited information was available.
51. Bangladesh: Social Forestry Opportunity Maps / Satellite Imagery
As a medium for engaging local villagers in decision-making on land and resources, a Bangladeshi NGO updated large-scale topographic maps with remote sensing data. Villagers used these to propose sites for protecting Sal forest, for forest plantations and for reforestation of degraded lands. These were combined by the villagers with geographic data on other resource uses and land tenure arrangements to compile a series of "social forestry opportunity maps."
REFERENCE(S): Flavelle 1993.
____________________________________________________________
52. Brazil: Xavante Border Monitoring / Satellite Imagery
Over the last 40 years, 80% of Xavante lands have been lost to incursions. They have regained control over 6 areas but these are still subject to encroachment from plantations and ranches. Association of the Indigenous Community of Tso'repre (ACIRK) is now determined to create agro-ecological projects for the 6 areas and to monitor them by satellite.
CONTACT: Aniceto Tsudzawere, Director, ACIRK, Aldeia Sáo Marcos, CEP 78.600, Barra da Garcas, Mato Grosso, Brazil.
____________________________________________________________
53. Canada: Ayuukht Nisga'a Mapping Land Ownership / Protected Knowledge
This project was initiated in 1982 by the Nisga'a Tribal Council to strengthen their claim to the fishery in negotiations with the Federal government. The model that was mapped reflected the traditional Nisga'a tenure system, in which kin groups own fishing territories and harvesting rights. This ownership is transmitted via the knowledge of wilp (house) traditions. Only the chief can decide to reveal this knowledge. The study produced 8 volumes of mapped place names, territories and resource information, including an atlas of Nisga'a owned territories. These belong to the Tribal Council and have never been made public.
REFERENCE(S): Brooke 1993.
____________________________________________________________
54. Canada: Chipewayan Land Use, Northwest Territories / Map Biographies
This study was undertaken to establish traditional use of the Northwest Territories by Chipewayan people living in Saskatchewan, to be used in settling a boundary dispute with the Inuit in Nunavut. Covering three bands, the study obtained map biographies from 91 active hunters, a 50% sample. The mapping focused upon travel and habitation. Map biographies were traced on to 1:1,000,000 overlays, then digitized and compiled with an AutoCad program for the study report.
REFERENCE(S): Prince Albert Tribal Council 1990.
____________________________________________________________
55. Canada: Cree, Fort George Resource Use and Subsistence Economy / Basic Mapping
This study was conducted by the Cree of Fort George to establish their dependence upon subsistence resources on land slated for the James Bay Hydroelectric Scheme. This study differed from other land use and occupancy mapping in that harvest levels were attached to specific areas.
REFERENCE(S): Weinstein, no date.
____________________________________________________________
56. Canada: Cree & Beaver, Infrastructural Impact Assessment / Map Biographies
When the Alaska Highway was proposed as a pipeline corridor, 5 Cree and Beaver Bands in northwestern British Columbia obtained funds for an impact study, to be based on a historical comparison of the impacts of the highway itself since its construction in 1942. Map biographies from all adult men were compiled for the periods before and after 1942 and drawn directly onto 1:250,000 sheets, together with data on trails and animal habitat. These were compared with maps of settlement and industrial resource use.
REFERENCE(S): Union of British Columbia Chiefs 1980.
____________________________________________________________
57. Canada: Inuit Halibut Fishery, Pangnirtung / GPS
In the late 1980s, Inuit of Pangnirtung developed a local halibut and scallop fishery. Halibut are taken in late Winter, on 600m lines let through holes in the sea-ice of Cumberland Sound, a large stretch of water close to the community. Although preliminary surveys indicated that there were enough halibut to sustain a local fishery, these were not comprehensive enough to ascertain seasonal distribution and abundance of the halibut. As a result, the fishermen sometimes dig barren holes through 1-2m of sea-ice. In 1990, the community obtained a GPS unit for use in local search and rescue. Another potential application was realized when the fishermen began to utilize GPS to georeference each fishing hole, record the catch, thus generating a map of relative halibut distribution.
____________________________________________________________
59. Canada: Manitounuk Sound Waterfowl Ecology Mapping
This ongoing mapping project was initiated in 1991 by the Grand Council of the Cree to document Cree use and knowledge of waterfowl ecology in expectation of an environmental review of the Great Whale Project, an extension of the James Bay Hydroelectric Project.
____________________________________________________________
60. Canada: Nimpkish Kwakiutl Resource Management Study / Basic Mapping
Frustrated by lack of access to governmental planning processes and concerned about deforestation and dwindling salmon populations, the Kwakiutl decided to compile their own database on resource use on their traditional lands in the Nimpkish Valley, British Columbia, for use in public hearings and meetings in support of their call for an integrated approach to managing the valley. This was not a conventional land use and occupancy study instead it focused on resources, habitat, alienation, industrial resource exploitation and settlement. Overlay maps were made on 1:50,000 topographic sheets and their comparison allowed the identification of major areas of resource conflict. The overlay process also demonstrated that, in some cases, government planning decisions had been based on faulty or incomplete data. This data is now being transferred to GIS.
REFERENCE(S): Brooke 1993.
____________________________________________________________
61. Canada: Nisga'a / Aerial Video-Mapping
The Nisga'a Tribal Council commissioned aerial video imagery to classify and map shoreline types, to make an inventory of associated biological resources, and to assess the potential for kelp and seaweed harvesting and for shellfish culture. A twin-engine aircraft was used, with a super VHS 6mm video camera mounted in a perspex dome under the tail, controlled remotely by a joystick and video monitor in the cabin. The imagery was georeferenced by using a GPS to record aircraft position on the tape. The aircraft was flown at an altitude of between 35-120m and 400 km of shoreline was mapped.
REFERENCE(S): Nass, Bryna L. 1993.
____________________________________________________________
62. Canada: Whapmagoostui Land-Use Study / GIS
This study was commissioned by the Grand Council of the Crees as part of their strategy to contest The Great Whale Project, an extension of the James Bay Hydroelectric Project. The information was to be used for litigation, impact assessment, negotiations and project modifications. The maps illustrate how Cree use resources and perceive their limitations. They are supported by harvest studies, a community profile and needs assessment, and archeological reports. All geographic data has been processed on a GIS.
REFERENCE(S): Brooke 1993.
____________________________________________________________
63. Ecuador: Shuar Land Claims / Basic Mapping
Shuar land claims were mapped with cartographic methods using standard survey technology over a period of twenty years after a U.S. Peace Corps program initiated the effort and trained the Shuar in the techniques. The process included organizational efforts to educate communities about the value of community land title, to mobilize the contribution of community labor toward the border demarcation of their territory, and to develop organizations for border negotiations between neighboring communities. As a result, hundreds of communities have received land titles.
REFERENCES: C. Kleymeyer, Inter-American Foundation, personal communication.
____________________________________________________________
64. Senegal: Ndam Mor Fademba Boundaries / RRA
A Rapid Rural Appraisal was carried out by World Vision for five days in October 1991. Local maps were drawn in the sand as a means of articulating the relationships between villagers and their lands. This was one of 6 Ndam communities. This process illustrated how boundaries between the six villages tended to be fluid, to accommodate inter-family transactions, whereas the collective Ndam boundary was more clearly defined, with reference to natural and introduced features.
REFERENCES: Schoonmaker-Freudenberger 1991.
____________________________________________________________
AFN. 1993. EAGLE Project Annual Report 1992/93. Ottawa, Canada: Assembly of First Nations.
Arragutainaq, Lucassie, Robert Hudson, and Peter Poole. 1989. Winter Reindeer Surveys of the Belcher Islands: 1989. Unpublished. Ottawa, Canada: Department of Indian Affairs.
Arvelo-Jimínez, Nelly and Keith Conn. 1995. "The Ye'kuana Self-Demarcation Process." Cultural Survival Quarterly, Winter 1995, pp. 40-42. Cambridge, MA: Cultural Survival.
Behrens, Clifford A. & Thomas L. Sever, editors. 1991. Applications of Space-Age Technology in Anthropology. Proceedings from NASA meeting, John C. Stennis Space Center.
Bird, Beverly. 1995. "The EAGLE Project: Re-mapping Canada from an Indigenous Perspective." Cultural Survival Quarterly, Winter 1995, pp. 23-24. Cambridge, MA: Cultural Survival.
Bowe, Michèle. 1994. Processes for the Involvement of Indigenous Peoples in the Community Use of Natural Resources. Unpublished. Washington, DC: World Wildlife Fund.
Brooke, Lorraine. 1993. Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples, History Workshop, Discussion paper. Unpublished.
Butler, John. 1994. Jau National Park Project. Unpublished. Washington, DC: World Wildlife Fund.
Carson, Brian R. 1987. "Appraisal of Rural Resources Using Aerial Photography: Examples from a Remote Hill Region in Nepal." Proceedings of the International Conference on Rapid Rural Appraisal, pp. 175-190. Thailand: Khon Kaen University.
CDPC. 1994. Assistance for People-Initiated Ancestral Domain Delineation Among Selected Indigenous Peoples of the Cordillera, Philippines. Proposal to the Biodiversity Support Program. Unpublished. Baguio City, Philippines: CDPC.
CEDIA. 1993. Report on Land Titling Activities in the Peruvian Amazon. Centro para el Desarrollo del IndRgena Amaz\nico (CEDIA). Unpublished. Lima, Peru.
Chapin, Mac. 1993. Proposal for Funds to Support the Participatory Research Project: "Land and the Indigenous Peoples of Eastern Panama". Unpublished. Arlington, VA: Cultural Survival, Central America Program.
________. 1994. Development Notes: Indigenous Mapping of the DariénJn, Panama. Unpublished. Arlington, VA: Center for the Support of Native Lands.
Contreras, Carmen Elida. 1994. "First Map of Panama's Last Roadless Wilderness May Help Indigenous Tribes Save Their Homelands." Newsrelease. San José, Costa Rica: Tropical Conservation Newsbureau.
CSNL. 1994. Miskito Coast Protected Area, Proposal, Land Use Mapping. Unpublished. Arlington, VA: Center for the Support of Native Lands.
________. 1994. Organization description. Arlington, VA: Center for the Support of Native Lands.
Denniston, Derek. 1994. "Defending the Land With Maps." World Watch, Jan/Feb 1994. Washington, DC: Worldwatch Institute.
Dewees, Peter. 1989. "Aerial Photographs and Household Studies in Kenya." RRA Notes 7:9-11. London, U.K.: International Institute for Environmental Develelopment.
EDF. 1994. The Paran< Project Proposal by the Environmental Defense Fund. Unpublished. Washington, DC: Environmental Defense Fund.
Enote, James. 1992. "Saving the Land and Preserving the Culture: Environmentalism at the Pueblo of Zuni." Global Pages, August 1992, pp. 4-7.
Freeman, Milton. 1976. Inuit Land Use and Occupancy Study: Vol I: Land Use and Occupancy, 263 pp.; Vol II: Supporting Studies, 287 pp.; Vol III: Land Use Atlas, 167 ;pp.
Geonex. 1992. Staking out Menkragnoti Indian Area. Proposal to FundaHno Mata Virgem. Unpublished. New York, NY: Rainforest Foundation International.
Gonzalez, Nicanor, Francisco Herrera, and Mac Chapin. 1995. "Ethnocartography in the DariJn." Cultural Survival Quarterly, Winter 1995, p. 31-33. Cambridge, MA: Cultural Survival.
Gupta, Anil K. 1989. "Maps Drawn by Farmers and Extensionists." Farmer First: Farmer Innovation and Agricultural Research, Robert Chambers, Arnold Pacey, and Lori Ann Thrupp, eds., pp. 86-92. London, U.K.: Intermediate Technology Publications.
Herlihy, Peter H. 1993. Indigenous Mapping of the Honduran Mosquitia: The Design and Methodology of a Participatory Project. Unpublished. Southeastern Louisiana University.
ILRC. 1992. Annual Report. Washington, DC: Indian Law Resource Center.
Jarvis, Keith A. 1993. The Yuqí Indigenous Territory, Integrating G.P.S., G.I.S., and Remote Sensing Technologies: Survey and Mapping, Change Detection, and Natural Resource Management. Report to Subproyecto Protección de Etnias, SENMA/BID/UCF. Unpublished. Gainesville, FL: Geoplan Center, Department of Urban and Regional Planning, University of Florida.
Jarvis, Keith A. and Allyn MacLean Stearman. 1995. "Geomatics and Political Empowerment: The Yuquí. Cultural Survival Quarterly, Winter 1995, p. 58-61. Cambridge, MA: Cultural Survival.
Kemp, William B. and Lorraine F. Brooke. 1995. "Towards Information Self-Sufficiency: The Nunavik Inuit gather information on ecology and land use." Cultural Survival Quarterly, Winter 1995, p. 25-28. Cambridge, MA: Cultural Survival.
Marchand, Michael E. and Richard Winchell. 1994. "Tribal Implementation of GIS: A Case Study of Planning Applications with the Colville Confederated Tribes." Cultural Survival Quarterly, Winter 1994, pp. 49-51. Cambridge, MA: Cultural Survival.
Mearns, Robin. 1989. "Aerial Photographs in Rapid Land Resource Appraisal, Papua New Guinea." RRA Notes, 7:12-14. London, U.K.: International Institute for Environmental Development.
Momberg, Frank, Ir. Dolvina Damus, Godwin Limberg, and Samuel ST Padan. 1994. Participatory Tools for Community - Forest Profiling and Zonation of Conservation Areas: Experiences from the Kayan Mentarang Nature Reserve, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Jakarta, Indonesia: World Wildlife Fund-Indonesia Programme.
MYRADA. 1991. "Participatory Rural Appraisal, Proceedings of the Bangalore PRA Trainers Workshop, February 1991." RRA Notes, No. 13. London, U.K.: International Institute for Environmental Development.
Nass, Bryna L. 1993. A Biophysical Inventory of Coastal Resources and Assessment of Shellfish Culture Capability in the Nisga'a Land Claim Area, British Columbia. New Aiyanish, BC, Canada: LGL Ltd., for Nisga'a Tribal Council.
Neefjes, Koos. 1993. "Examples of Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) in Wetland Development in Guinea-Bissau." RRA Notes 17:49-56. London, U.K.: International Institute for Environmental Development.
Nietschmann, Bernard. 1995. "Defending the Miskito reefs with Maps and GPS: Mapping With Sail, Scuba, and Satellite." Cultural Survival Quarterly, Winter 1995, p. 34-37. Cambridge, MA: Cultural Survival.
NRMP. 1993. Village Sketch-Mapping at Bukit Baka-Bukit Raya National Park, West Kalimantan. Natural Resource Management Project/Associates in Rural Development Report No. 34. Jakarta, Indonesia: USAID/Natural Resource Management Project.
PAFID. 1994. Survey and Delineation of Ancestral Lands and Domains of Philippine Indigenous Cultural Communities. Proposal to the Biodiversity Support Program. Unpublished. Quezon City, Philippines: Philippine Association for Intercultural Development.
Poffenberger, Mark & Betsy McGean. 1993. Community Allies: Forest Co-Management in Thailand. 62 pp. Berkeley, CA: Center for Southeast Asia Studies, University of California.
Poole, Peter. 1995. "Geomatics: Who Needs It?" Editorial. Cultural Survival Quarterly, Winter 1995, p. 1. Cambridge, MA: Cultural Survival.
________. 1995. "Guide to the Technology" Cultural Survival Quarterly, Winter 1995, pp. 16-18. Cambridge, MA: Cultural Survival.
Prince Albert Tribal Council. 1990. Recent and Current Land Use in the Northwest Territories by Chipewyan Bands. Prince Albert, SK, Canada: Prince Albert Tribal Council.
Peluso, Nancy Lee. 1994. Whose Woods Are These? The Politics of Mapping States and Indigenous Forest Territories in Kalimantan, Indonesia. Manuscript. Presented at the annual meeting of the American Association of Geographers.
RFI. 1992. Rainforest Foundation International Annual Report 1991-1992. 19 pp. New York, NY: Rainforest Foundation International.
Rocheleau, Dianne. 1994. Summary accounts of three current projects. Unpublished: Worcester, MA: Clark University.
Royo, Nonette. 1994. Report for the Biodiversity Support Program on projects in Indonesia and the Philippines. Unpublished. Jakarta, Indonesia.
Sandford, Dick. 1989. "A Note on the Use of Aerial Photographs for Land Use Planning on a Settlement Site in Ethiopia." RRA Notes 6:18-19. London, U.K.: International Institute for Environmental Development.
Schmink, Marianne. 1994. Agroforestry Development Program for Small Producers in the State of Acre, Brazil. Proposal to USAID by the University of Florida and PESACRE. Unpublished.
Schoonmaker Freudenberger, Karen and Mark. 1993. Fields, Fallow and Flexibility: Natural Resource Management in Ndam More Fademba, Senegal. 53 pp. London, U.K.: International Institute for Environmental Development.
Scott, David. 1995. "Habitation Sites and Culturally Modified Trees: Using Predictive Models in Ditidaht Territory." Cultural Survival Quarterly, Winter 1995, pp. 19-20. Cambridge, MA: Cultural Survival.
Sirait, Martua Thomas. 1993. Mapping Customary Land: A Case Study of Long Uli Village East Kalimantan, Indonesia. 20 pp. Unpublished.
Smith, Richard Chase. 1993. Geographic Information Systems and Economic Planning for Indian Territories in the Amazon Basin. Proceedings of the 13th Annual ESRI User Conference, pp. 353-363.
________. 1995. "GIS and Long Range Economic Planning for Indigenous Territories." Cultural Survival Quarterly, Winter 1995, pp. 43-48. Cambridge, MA: Cultural Survival.
SNTC. 1992. Going In Style: A Tale of G.I.S. in the Shuswap Nation. Unpublished. Kamloops, BC, Canada: Shuswap Nation Tribal Council.
TMCC. 1994. Toledo Maya Cultural Council Proposal: Maya Homeland Area, Land Use Mapping. Unpublished draft. Washington, DC: Indian Law Resource Center.
UNEP. 1994. Draft Report of the Open-Ended Intergovernmental Meeting of Scientific Experts on Biological Diversity. United Nations Environment Programme.
Union of B.C. Chiefs. 1980. Final submission on the Northwest, B.C., Land Use and Occupancy Study. Unpublished. Canada: Union of B.C. Chiefs.
Uraivan, Tan-Kim-Yong. 1990. Participatory Land-Use Planning as a Social Methodology for Natural Resource Management, Resource Management and Development Progress. Unpublished. Chiang Mai, Thailand: Faculty of Social Sciences, Chiang Mai University.
Weinstein, Marty. What the Land Provides. Unpublished. Fort George, PQ, Canada.
____________________________________________________________
DIRECTORY OF MAPPING SUPPORT PROGRAMS
The following list identifies programs, both active and proposed, informal or dedicated, which have supported, stimulated or assisted in the kinds of projects described in this report, and which combine one or more aspects of local mapping, indigenous land recovery, demarcation, and biodiversity conservation. Contact information is provided along with brief descriptions of activities known at the time of preparation of this report.
BIODIVERSITY SUPPORT PROGRAM has provided support to local mapping projects in Indonesia, Namibia, Panama, the Philippines and Thailand. c/o WWF, 1250 24th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20037, USA. TEL: 202-861-8313 FAX: 202-861-8324.
BUREAU OF INDIAN AFFAIRS has set up a program, Indian Integrated Resource Information Program, to support the introduction of GIS to Native American resource groups. U.S. Dept. of Interior, Bureau of Indian Affairs, Geographic Data Service Centre, 730 Simms Street, Room 101, Golden, CO 80401, USA.
CENTER FOR THE SUPPORT OF NATIVE LANDS has provided support for the series of community-based mapping projects in Honduras, Panama, Nicaragua and Belize. 3240 Wilson Boulevard, Suite 220, Arlington, VA 22201, USA. TEL: 703-841-9771 FAX: 703-841-9774.
CLARK UNIVERSITY, Clark Labs for Cartographic Technology and Geographic Analysis, has developed a GIS, IDRISI, designed to meet the needs of developing areas. 950 Main Street, Worcester, MA 01610-1477, USA. TEL: 508-793-7526, FAX: 508-793-8842.
CONSERVATION INTERNATIONAL has developed a geographic information system, CISIG, designed to meet the needs of environmental and indigenous NGOs throughout the Americas. Obtainable for $5K. Works in English, Spanish, Portuguese. 1015 18th Street, Washington, DC 20036, USA. TEL: 202-429-5660, FAX: 202-887-5188.
EAST-WEST CENTER has supported mapping research within Indonesia. East-West Center, Program on Environment, 1777 East-West Road, Honolulu, HI 96848, USA. TEL: 808-944-7298.
The ENDANGERED PEOPLES' PROJECT, with support from the Environment and Development Support Program has initiated a series of community-based training workshops in SE Asia. EPP, Vancouver, BC, Canada. Alix Flavelle, 1040 Lakewood Drive, Vancouver, BC V5L 4M2, Canada.
The ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS RESEARCH INSTITUTE (ESRI) has a program to train and support environmental and indigenous groups in using ARC/INFO GIS. ESRI, 380 New York Street, Redlands, CA 92373-8100, USA. TEL: 714-793-2853, FAX: 714-794-5953.
FIRST NATIONS AVIATION (FNA) AND THE LOCAL EARTH OBSERVATION (LEO) PROJECT are developing low-cost aerial methods to assist First Nations in environmental mapping and monitoring. FNA, RR1, Deseronto, Ontario K0K 1X0, Canada. TEL: 613-396-3100, FAX: 613-396-3761. LEO Project, 4491 Harriet Street, Vancouver, BC V5V 4K4, Canada. TEL/FAX: 604-876-1958.
The INDIAN LAW RESOURCE CENTRE has provided legal and advocacy support for several of the reported projects in Central and South America. 601 E Street, SE, Washington, DC 20003, USA. TEL: 202-547-2800, FAX: 202-547-2803.
The INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT has supported and stimulated PRA projects and publishes RRA Notes, a valuable source on methodologies and local experiences. 3 Endsleigh Street, London WC1H 0DD, UK. TEL: 71-388-2117, FAX: 71-388-2826.
The INTERNATIONAL WORKGROUP FOR INDIGENOUS AFFAIRS has assisted in land titling projects in many areas. IWGIA, FiolstrFde 10, DK-1171, Copenhagen K, Denmark. TEL: 33-124724, FAX: 33-147749.
LIGHTHAWK is in the process of acquiring an advanced video-based multispectral scanner, to be mounted in a light airplane, which can mimic the spectral windows used by remote sensing satellites and which will be used for local mapping projects for environmental NGOs and indigenous resource groups. P.O. Box 8163 Santa Fe, NM 87504-8163, USA. TEL: 505-982-9656, FAX: 505-984-8381.
The RAINFOREST FOUNDATION INTERNATIONAL has assisted indigenous peoples in the Amazon in demarcation projects and is continuing to support post-demarcation projects. RFI, 270 Lafayette Street, New York, NY 10012, USA. TEL: 212-431-9098, FAX: 212-431-9197.
SURVIVAL INTERNATIONAL has supported indigenous peoples demarcation and mapping of traditional territories. SI, 6 Walton Manor Court, Oxford, England, OX1 6EL, UK.
The UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX INSTITUTE OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES has been a major source in the development of PRA methodologies and local village mapping. University of Sussex, Brighton BN1 9RE, UK. FAX: 273-621-202.
The WOODS HOLE RESEARCH CENTER has assisted in community-based training in satellite image analysis in the Amazon. P.O. Box 296, 565 Woods Hole Road, 13 Church Street, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA. TEL: 508-540-9900, FAX: 508-540-9700.
The WORLD RAINFOREST MOVEMENT has developed a proposal: "Indigenous Territories and Resource Use Mapping Project: South East Asia Region" to assist forest peoples in mapping. WRM, 8 Chapel Row, Chadlington, OX7 3NA, UK. TEL: 60-876-691, FAX: 60-876-743.
WORLD WIDE FUND FOR NATURE and WORLD WILDLIFE FUND - US (WWF) have supported mapping in Indonesia and Central America. WWF/Indonesia Programme, Timothy Jessup, Jl. Pela 3, Gandari Utara, Jakarta Selatan 12079, Indonesia. TEL: 21-720-3095, FAX: 21-739-5907. WWF/Central American Program - Pam Hathaway, 1250 24th Street, NW, Washington, DC 20037, USA. TEL: 202-293-4800, FAX: 202-293-9211.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
____________________________________________________________
Peter Poole has spent his career working on a broad range of indigenous and natural resources issues, including trade, wildlife resource inventories using remote sensing, increasing local food production and self-sufficiency, and national park design and management. In addition he has worked internationally with a diverse range of institutions such as the Shuswap Nation Tribal Council, World Bank, Global Environment Facility, among others. Based in Vancouver, Canada, Dr. Poole received his first degrees in sociology and economics from the University of London, followed by an M.A. in geography from Columbia University in New York, a Post-Graduate diploma in aerial photo interpretation for landscape and ecological services from the International Institute for Aerial Survey and Earth Sciences in Enschede, the Netherlands, and a Ph.D. in Geography from McGill University in Montreal. Dr. Poole currently works for The Local Earth Observation (LEO) Project, 4491 Harriet Street, Vancouver, BC V5V 4K4, Canada.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
_____________________________________________________________
Amongst all those who generously provided information, special thanks to Nonette Royo, Alix Flavelle, Helen McLaren and Lorraine Brooke.
___________________________________________________________