The Biological Diversity of the Black Sea Shelf Along the Bulgarian Coast and Its Adjacent Landscape

Rumyana Peteva

Introduction

This report, which has been prepared by the Independent Society Ecoglasnost-Varna, draws upon confirmed data about the biodiversity of the Black Sea coast. The data have been collected by Bulgarian and foreign scientific experts who have investigated the dynamics, condition, and threats inherent to this region. Part I focuses on 1) the biological diversity of the Bulgarian Black Sea fish species; 2) the biological diversity of the Bulgarian Black Sea plankton and benthos; and 3) the floral diversity of the Bulgarian Black Sea coast. Part II examines the specific biotic factors, economic and tourist functions, and anthropogenic pressures in three zones - the Black Sea coastal region; the inland waters; and the inland landscape, forest massifs, and protected areas - based on scientific data from experts and conversations with selected individuals. In this report, the sea shelf and inland landscape are differentiated to allow discussion of the protected areas, some of which are inland, and also of those regions where the ecological balance between the sea shelf and the adjacent landscape has been destroyed by a variety of human activities.

Part I

1. The Biological Diversity of the Bulgarian Black Sea Fish Species

At present, about 46 families and 126 species of fishes have been described for the Bulgarian Black Sea. Some of these, however, have been reported based on observations of single and unique specimens. Therefore, their actual presence in the Bulgarian Black Sea is doubtful. The Bulgarian ichthyofauna could be more precisely specified through seasonal observations made annually or episodically.

The Bulgarian Black Sea fauna consists mostly of seasonal migrating fish that spend winters in the Sea of Marmora or along the Anatolian Black Sea coast. The classification made by Rass (1987), based on the catalog North East Atlantic and Mediterranean Fish (Kloffham, 1973), is widely accepted as one of the most precise pictures of the Black Sea's fish diversity.

According to the statistics, the death rate among the Black sea fishes is affected to only a slight degree by the Bulgarian fishery, with the exception of the anchovy (Engraulis encrasicholus). At the same time, populations of some species have been significantly reduced due to extreme fishing pressures on the part of Turkey and the states of the former Soviet Union. In particular, the populations of anchovy, mackerel (Scomber scombrus) and turbot have been reduced over the last several years.

The earliest research on the Bulgarian Black Sea ichthyofauna dates to 1920. There was at that time no specialized institute for marine research, and these first studies were mainly descriptive in nature, intended to present the general outlines of the Bulgarian Black Sea flora and fauna (Drenski, 1923). The treatise Bulgarian Fish (Drenski, 1951) describes some species that were unique for the time: Squalus blainvillei (Risso), Asipenser nudiventris (Lovetzky), and Lichia amia. Specimens of these species were caught near Sozopol and Varna. The contemporary species Conger conger and Serranus cabrilla are also exceptionally rare.

In 1964, after extensive research into the taxonomy and biology of fish, the work The Black Sea Fish was published (Stoyanov et al.). The book listed 135 fish species, belonging to 49 genera. Twenty-three (23) of these species were representatives of freshwater ichthyofauna whose habitat included the littoral lakes and the mouths of the rivers that fed into the Black Sea. Especially notable is the family Gobiidae, which includes 19 representatives of 9 genera. Since 1992, netting of fish from this family has been prohibited.

Georgiev (1966) continued the tradition of scientific research on the Gobiidae and listed 23 species. The species added by Georgiev to those listed in The Black Sea Fish were Gobius buccichi (Steindachner), Neogobius platyrostris (Pallas), Neogobius kessleri (Gunter), and Benthophiloides steliatus (Sauvage). The last two are representatives of the freshwater ichthyofauna and are found in the Danube River and in some littoral lakes.

Manolov (1970) listed 11 species of the family Sparidae. To the 8 species listed in The Black Sea Fish, he added Dentex dentex, Pagelus erythrinus, Diplodus vulgaris (Geoffrey St. Hilaire), and Oblada melanura.

In The Black Sea Fish, Stoyanov reported on the Pagellos mormyrus = Lithognatus mormyrus for the first time. Since no one has seen this species in the last 10 years, it is assumed to be very rare. The same conclusion is valid for Dentex dentex, Diplodus vulgaris, and Oblada melanura.

Prodanov and Chachev (1987) reported an immature specimen of Merluccius merluccius near Sozopol, caught during the spring trawling.

From these observations, it can be concluded that part of the Bulgarian Black Sea fish fauna consists of unique and rare specimens that visit the Bulgarian waters only on occasion.

Of the total of 126 species, 24 are Pontic relicts, 9 originated in the Atlantic Ocean, and 93 are Mediterranean migrants. Only one species is catadromous, while the anadromous fish are represented by 8 species. Sixty-two Black Sea fish species migrate between the open and coastal waters, while 64 species migrate between the southern and northern Black Sea. The sum total of fish species that spawn in pelagic (open sea) waters is 66. About 27-29 of these spawn in Bulgarian waters: 17-19 spawn near the coast and 10 in the open sea. Forty-nine species spawn on the sea bottom, about 41-42 of them in Bulgarian waters. There are three species of viviparous fish, two in Bulgarian waters - one close to shore and the other in the open sea. Of the 7 species in which the males bear roe in sacks (located in pre-anal openings), 6 inhabit the sea shelf and only one occurs in the open sea. With the exception of 6 species that spawn in the autumn and winter, all the fish spawn in the spring and summer. Most of the fish species spawn near the coast - making them more vulnerable to pollution.

Thanks to detailed studies by many Bulgarian ichthyologists - Stoyanov, Nickolov, Georgiev, Ivanov, Kolarov, Kolemanova, Karapetkova, Prodanov, Mihailov, Daskalov, etc. - the main fish characteristics that determine their economic importance have been defined. They are: reproduction, length, increase of weight with the increase in age, and the degree of interest in that particular fish species. Continuous and regular observation and control of the size, age, and sex ratio of the anchovy, mackerel, belted bonito (Plamis sarda), turbot, and other species, and studies of the dynamics of the fishery, fishing pressures, the ichthyoplankton (eggs and larvae), and the structure of the Bulgarian Black sea fish populations have been conducted. Based on these observations and studies, concepts for the rational utilization of fish resources have been worked out. During the last few years, research has concentrated on the effects of anthropogenic pollution on the Black Sea and the effects of fishing on the most abundant species (such as anchovy). These studies have shown that the number of fish species has declined rapidly with the appearance and spread of the new species of ctenophore.

International efforts focusing on the Black Sea show mixed results. Measures to protect the Black Sea from pollution are not well coordinated. A number of countries - Bulgaria, Romania, the states of the former Soviet Union - have participated in developing and signing the Convention Concerning Fishing in the Black Sea (1960), and in setting fishing standards and undertaking scientific research. Turkey has refrained from signing the agreement. The Former Soviet Union did not have a representative attending the General Council on the Mediterranean Sea Fishery.

2. The Biological Diversity of the Bulgarian Black Sea Plankton and Benthos

The so-called secondary eutrophication of the Black Sea is due to the influx from the large deep rivers of great quantities of nitrogenous and phosphorous compounds, as well as other components of organic and non-organic origin. These contribute to the rapid seasonal development of phyto- and zooplankton blooms.

Since the phyto- and zooplankton are mainly re-presented by short-lived, quickly reproducing organisms, the accumulations of dead matter can be impressive. As dead matter falls to the sea bottom or to a thermocline zone and begins to decay, it takes up oxygen and deprives organisms of the adjacent pelagic waters of the possibility for further development.

As an ecological category, the zooplankton includes that portion of the sea fauna whose temporal or permanent habitat is located throughout the water mass or is concentrated in part of it. Consequently, the zooplankton are part of a pelagic biocenosis, assuming an intermediate niche in the complex trophic chain. The different zooplankton species, with their varied quantity, distribution, biomass, and productivity, play a special role in transporting surface energy to the sea bottom. Naturally, the appearance and duration of conditions favorable for different phases of zooplankton growth depend upon changes in biotic and abiotic factors.

The Bulgarian Black sea zooplankton fauna includes representatives of the Protozoa, Coelenterata, Nemathelminthes, Ammelides, Mollusca, Arthropoda, Chaetognata, and Chordata. The species that comprise each of these groups were not determined as of 1952. Subsequently (until 1959), all zooplankton typical for the Bulgarian Black Sea were identified and described, with the exception of the Infusoria (Roussev and Dimov, 1959; Dimov, 1960, 1963, 1964, 1966). In 1976 the same scientists compiled a new list of the typical fauna, again excepting the class Infusoria (Konsulov, 1976). Not until 1990 was a full fauna, including the Infusoria, drawn up (Konsulov, 1991).

The spread of the newly-arrived ctenophore Mnemia mccradyi (Mayer, 1900) has been an important factor affecting the stability of the plankton community over the last four or five years. These organisms are about 14 cm long. They are predatory, feeding on mesoplankton of all kinds and on the eggs and larvae of pelagic fish. During the summer, this species reaches a density of 285 specimens per m3 in inshore waters; in littoral lakes (Varna Lake), it exceeds 450 specimens per m3 (Konsulov, 1986). The high degree of eutrophication, which this species requires for its growth and rapid reproduction, is the reason behind its settlement in the Black Sea and its invasion of the Black Sea inshore waters. M. mccardyi presents a serious threat to both fish and zooplankton species diversity.

In terms of species richness, the Black Sea zooplankton could be characterized as average. The diversity within some groups, such as Ctenophora, is low. The incidence of rare species is also low. Pontella mediteranea is one of the rare species. The composition and quantity of bottom larvaton as part of the zooplankton (mesoplankton) has an important bearing on the maintenance of a rich variety of benthic fauna. The mesoplankton are represented by Lammelibranchia-veliger, Castropoda-veliger, Cirripedia cyprus, Polichaeta larvae, and others.

Trawler fishing, especially in the shallow shelf areas, constitutes a great danger to the macro- and mesoplankton. The concentrated growth of zooplankton of the subclass Copepoda on the bottom layers causes a significant build-up of detritus. Bottom trawling disturbs the fine slime films of the gravelly sea bottom, which kills the mesoplankton. Later the silt settles and covers the eggs of the Cladocera and Copepoda. This could explain the 80% reduction in the number of P. avirostris over the last decade. This type of fishing also leads also to the churning up and diffusion of radioactive elements that are buried in the fine sediments (Konsulov, 1991).

The diversity of zoobenthos in the Bulgarian Black Sea is quite well known. According to the latest data (Marinov, 1990), the number of zoobenthic species amounts to 1370, belonging to 12 major taxonomic groups (Protozoa, Porifera, Coelenterata, Plathelminthes, Nemathelminthes, Nemertini, Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca, Tentaculata, Echinodermata, and Chordata). Arthropoda is the most diverse of these, with 492 species (of which 204 belong to the Herpacticoida). The worms constitute the second most diverse group, with 338 species (102 Polychaeta and 109 Nematoda). Taking into account the fact that some groups - Protozoa, Oligochaeta, Turbellaria, etc. - have not yet been well studied, it can be assumed that the number of benthos species is actually much higher than the current total.

Three biocenotic groups of species have been differentiated: the supralittoral, the mediolittoral, and the sublittoral. These are further divided into 12 zoocenoses, identified by the species and quantities of zoobenthos within them. The greatest variety of species has been observed in the sand sublittoral (142 species) and rock sublittoral (123 species), followed by the mytilusis slime (90 species), the phazeoline slime (60 species), and the inshore slime (47 and 42 species in two subcenoses).

The scientific literature provides ample data about the planktonic and benthic diversity of the Bulgarian Black sea region. Several points are worth noting.

In terms of species diversity, the Black Sea zoobenthos is of average richness when compared to the world's other large expanses of water. The aquatic zones of utmost ecological importance are those occurring between the 10-15 m isobars. These are shown in Map 11. These areas are easily affected by human activities, e.g. trawling and coastal constructions (including dikes, piers, etc.). Such human activities present the most important contemporary threat to biological diversity, both in the shallow shelf and in the hydrogen sulphide-rich layers below 150 m. These facts suggest the urgent need for protective and restorative measures. To protect the biological diversity of the Bulgarian Black sea region:

1) trawling should be prohibited;

2) sea construction should not be permitted without ecological analyses prepared by marine experts;

3) Bio-filters should be implanted to support and shield benthic organisms and communities; and

4) aquatic protected areas should be established in territories that are important sources of benthic and planktonic larvae.

3. The Floral Diversity of the Bulgarian Black Sea Coast

The inland zone of the Black Sea includes the near-shore landscape, the inland area affected by the Black Sea (about 30-50 km), and the easternmost parts of Strandzha Mountain.

The inshore flora includes 149 rare species; 49 can be seen only in the Black Sea coastal region. Thirty-eight species are threatened by extinction and the habitat of 15 of them is the coastal region. Three species are listed as extinct: Halimione portulacoides, Tetragonolobus maritimus, and Veronice euxina. Out of a total of 190 species, the following are protected: Tulipa uromoffii, Tulipa hageri ssp. thracia, Poncratrium maritimum, Anemone silvestris, Nympheae alba, Nupha lutea, Motiole voloratissima, Cercis soliquostrum, Hippopnae rhamnoioles, Trapatatans sp. Most of these species are of limited distribution, and thus require enforcement of strict measures for their protection.

We recommend that the following Black Sea species be given protected status: Bromus lanceolatus, found only near the village of Sinemorets; Agropyrom litorale, found along the sea-sand border; Aegolops lorentii, found near Burgas Lake; Schoenoplectus litoralis, found near the marshes of Dourankoulak and near Varna Lake; Schoenoplectus triqueter, found near the inshore marshes; Acorus calamus, found near the mouth of the Kamchya River; Cressa cretica, found near the southern sea marshes; Artemisia pedemontana, found in the steppe region of Dobroudzha; Urospermum pitrocroides, found only near the village of Sinemorets; and Reichardia picroides, found south of Ahtopol.

The following typical species could be classified according to phytogeographic influence:

A. Submediterranean: Carpinus orientalis; Ficus carica; Paliurus spine chiristi; Colutea arborescus; Jasminum fruticais; Ruscus aculeatus var. ponticus, Plumbego europaea.

B. Pontic: Fagus orientalis; Scilla bithynica; Trachystemon orientale.

C. Steppe species (Southern Dobrudzha, near the Kaliakra Cape): Stipa lessingiane; Peonia tenuifolia; Adonis volgensis; Iris pumila.

D. Euxinian and Caucasian species: Stachycus angustifolia (Strandzha); Astragalus cornutus and Astragalus glaucus (the steppe region near the Kaliakra Cape).

A number of ecologically important plant and plant communities are found in the Black Sea coastal zone.

A. "Loggos" (Greek for "desolate spot in a forest") Forests: Fraxinus oxycarpa; Ulmos minor; Clematis vitalba; Periploca graeca; Hedera helix; Vitus sylvestris; Smilax excelsa.

B. Psammophytes (sand areas): Elymus arenarie, Crambe maritima, Eringium maritimum, Stachys maritima, Cakile maritima.

C. Halophytes (salted soils): Suaeda maritima, Bossia hirsute, Solicornnte europea

D. Hydrophytes (water expanses and boggy areas): Phragmites australis, Geratophyllum demersum, Nymphaea alba

The oak species Querus hartwisiana is found only on some sites in the Strandzha region. It has a peculiar understory companion - the evergreen Rhododendron ponticum. The cerris oak and Eastern beech are found in the same region.

One of the most aggressive of the "invader" species in the region is the so-called "water-plague," an American native that is found in the freshwater lakes, in the Danube, and in the littoral lakes. This species is now widespread, and presents a problem for shipping and fishing.

Part II

This part of the report has been prepared on the basis of the information provided by the Independent Society Ecoglasnost-Varna. This information includes data from experts in different scientific fields and institutes whose activities directly or indirectly involve the environment; from conversations with randomly selected people; and from conversations with people who are knowledgeable about and directly concerned with natural resources (e.g., fishermen, hunters, herb harvesters, pharmacists, doctors).

This report is relatively subjective in that our judgments are organized on the basis of impressions from numerous discussions with the people mentioned above. The nature of this report has also been influenced by the direct impressions and personal experience of the report's author. As far as most of the issues are concerned, an effort has been made to gather information representing different points of view, including those that are contrasting and even mutually exclusive. Difficult and embarrassing questions have been asked, and the information included here draws upon not only the answers received but upon evaluations of their authenticity. In preparing this report, discussions were held with: experts from the Regional Inspectorate of the Ministry of Environment (Water Supply and Sewage), the Institute of Oceanology, and the Regional Directorate of the Committee of Forestry - Varna; representatives of the local and provincial authorities of the Ministry of Environment in Varna and Sozopol; and ordinary people from the above-mentioned towns and the villages of Rossen, Izgrev, Varvara, and Sinemorets.

As a general conclusion, it can be stated that the most complete scientific information is available for the Varna region, the regions from Sozopol south, and the eastern parts of Strandzha Mountain. Less information is available for the regions between Staro Oryahovo (the Black Cape) and the town of Sozopol. The information about Bourgas and the adjoining region cannot be considered sufficient due to the presence of specific factors such as the large seaport and the salt-producing and petrochemical plants. In assessing specific biotic factors, economic and tourist functions, and anthropogenic pressures, three basic zones have been examined: the Black Sea coastal region; the inland waters; and the inland landscape, forest massifs, and protected areas.

1. The Black Sea Coastal Region

In terms of its ecological status, the Bulgarian Black Sea coastal region is quite overwhelmed. To the east, it includes the sea coast and its large shallow shelf, the biological diversity of which has been studied relatively well. To the west of the coast line lay the inland landscape, including the coastal lakes connected to the sea: Blatnitsa, Shablenska Lake near Shabla, the lakes near Varna, Vaya Lake, and the Mandra reservoir. The most important Black Sea areas from an ecological point of view are those 10 to 15 meters deep, where the sand bottom and rocks are very rich in species.

Kelp is especially important for maintaining biological processes and equilibrium. It adheres to the bottom and creates a feeding environment, through its cover of phytoplankton, for zooplankton and for many fish species. The zooplankton, in turn, are food for fish and very important in the regulation of general biological processes. The kelp and the biological communities of the sea bottom and rocks provide food and cover for the reproduction of many migratory and non-migratory fish, mussels, crustaceans, microorganisms, and other forms of sea life. The mussel fields are a powerful purifying filter of the sea waters.

Several factors have contributed to the ecological disequilibrium and abrupt decrease in biological diversity in the Black Sea coastal region. One critical factor has been the mass invasion, beginning 20-30 years ago, of Rapana thomasiana from the Mediterranean. This organisms's massive destruction of mussel fields has brought about an acute shortage of the black mussel as an economic resource and as an active ecological factor. As a result, it has become necessary to create artificial mussel farms. Since 1990, people have began to harvest Rapana thomasiana for use as food, mainly in the export trade. That was the year that social factors became more important influences on the equilibrium of the Black Sea coast and inland habitats. The active harvesting of the Rapana led to a great decrease in its biomass and made necessary the revaluation of its importance as a food source, its relation to the black mussel, and its role in the structure of the benthic communities.

Another new and very aggressive invader from the Atlantic Ocean is the previously mentioned species of Ctenophora (a special kind of medusa). Its populations grow very quickly and actively, creating vast biological masses (these masses can even impede navigation). Why does this Ctenophora upset the ecological balance? It feeds on zooplankton, which is also food for the fish (directly or indirectly). It thus becomes a great com-petitor with the fish for food. At the same time, it also feeds on fish larvae, decreasing the reproductive capacity of fish populations.

One of the main reasons for the Black Sea's present ecological disequilibrium is water pollution. The pollutants include domestic and industrial wastes from ships, beaches, and rivers, and organic and toxic elements (magnesium, potassium, heavy metals, radioactive substances, phosphorus, nitrates, nitrites, phosphates, oil products) from freshwater basins, rainwater, underground waters, and waters used to meet household needs. For example, 50,000 t of oil products flow into the Black Sea from the Danube every year. The toxic elements decrease fish populations and drive out both the permanent residents and migratory species. The organic macroelements - phosphates and nitrates - enrich the feeding environment along the coast through eutrophication. The resulting mass destruction of zooplankton allows the microflora to flourish. Eutrophication and the rapid increase in phytoplankton biomass leads to a higher rate of decay, and the removal of oxygen from the water (hypoxia). Eutrophication is considered to be the major reason behind the successful invasion of the Ctenophora, which is not native to the Black Sea. Eutrophication has thus harmed living conditions for fish in three ways: by fostering the appearance of an invasive rival, by increasing the level of destruction of fish larvae; and by allowing frequent repetition of the process of hypoxia. Experts and fishermen think that some fish species, such as sprat (Engraulis encrasicholus), react by accelerating their reproduction cycle - a kind of genetic response - to maintain necessary numbers.

There is an objective burden upon the Black Sea that should also be mentioned - the presence of hydrogen sulphide in the water at a depth of about 150 m. Life below this 150 m level is impossible. Due to the movement of the sea waters, this limit is variable. In this case, the west wind is of basic importance. When it blows intensively for 7-10 days, large surface water masses are moved far out to sea and the deep waters surface and reach the shore. During these periods, the hydrogen sulphide forces fish out. If this process coincides with a phytoplankton bloom and a hypoxia event, serious consequences can ensue. In the autumn of 1992, people gathered whole buckets of turbot on the beaches.

Another human activity, namely coastal construction, harms and destroys valuable biological communities near the shore that play very important roles in the maintenance of ecological equilibrium. If strict controls and expert assessments are not required, the construction of coastal fortifications, together with the process of privatization and the construction of coastal tourist projects, will increase pollution and direct destruction of coastal habitats.

Along with eutrophication, the greatest threat to the ecological equilibrium of the Black Sea is fishing, and especially trawler fishing. Notwithstanding the fact that bottom fishing is forbidden, Bulgarian and foreign ships frequently fish with bottom trawls. Equipped with nets whose meshes measure 6 mm, the trawlers plow the sand and rocks, releasing the hydrogen sulphide. The trawling ships gather mussels, Rapana thomasiana, seaweeds, and the smallest fish, shrimps, and spawn. Divers say that there is no region along the coast that has not been plowed by trawlers. Sometimes fishing ships from the north and south meet and thus gather up everything along the entire coast. This is how young turbot and the spawn of other species of basic economic importance for Bulgaria have been destroyed.

Out of a total of 126 fish species, 64 migrate south to the Sea of Marble and the Anatolian part of the Black Sea, and 62 reside permanently in our region. The turbot is in its reproductive phase from 15 April to 30 May and should not be fished during this period. Observations indicate that there is an abrupt decrease, to varying degrees, of almost all fish species. Fishermen from the southern coast think that species like the turbot, shad, belted bonito, blue fish, and even the grey mullet and about 22 goby species have decreased and almost disappeared. The Black Sea mackerel has certainly disappeared since 1969, due to the poor conditions for reproduction. The Mandren goby faces the same situation. The belted bonito and the blue fish have maintained their biomass levels, but according to catch data from the Sea of Marble, their northern spring migratory population has decreased substantially compared with the southeastern population. According to experts, this is due to the fact that strong swimming predator species - such as the blue fish and belted bonito - are highly sensitive to water pollution.

Scad and sprat are fished in our sea shelf region only during their migrations, but their numbers have also declined. The sprat spend the winter along the Ukrainian and Anatolian coasts (in the north and south respectively). Industrial fishing is highly developed in these regions, especially in the winter when the fish are not so mobile. As a result of continuous over fishing between 1989 and 1991, the catch of sprat has declined drastically in these years. There have been warnings of strange spots and wounds on the skin of some specimens (scad). These are thought to result from contact with radioactive or highly toxic substances.

In summary, the Bulgarian Black Sea coast and adjacent shallow sea shelf are subject to intensive anthropogenic interference (especially trawler fishing and eutrophication), resulting in almost complete destruction of the sea bottom communities. This results in changes in the diversity, quantity, and reproductive capacity of biological resources. Anthropogenic pollution of the Black Sea, together with the preexisting burden of hydrogen sulphide, places it first among the endangered water basins of Bulgaria. Various measures have been proposed to address these problems, including strict application of existing laws and statements; establishment of efficient fishing controls and inspections; the prohibition of trawler fishing; controls on coastal construction; establishment of protected areas in the sea (such as important larvae sources); formulation of a new international convention; introduction of strict quotas; and introduction of legitimate tenders at the fishing exchange.

2. The Inland Waters

This category includes lakes, dams, rivers, underground waters, industrial and domestic waters, and city sewers. These waters are treated separately since they are major highways connecting various regions, zones, and habitats. They are the major means of transportation for elements and substances of vital importance for the biota. They are also major direct distributors of pollution.

The problem of inland water pollution in the Black Sea region results from three main types of human activity. The problem of industrial pollution is of greatest importance. We will use Varna as an example since the information available about this area is detailed and can be taken as symptomatic of other areas. The factories at Varna have low-capacity sewage treatment stations, and were not designed according to modern environmental standards. The major pollutants are the chemical plants in Devnya, Belosslav, and Povelyanovo. There are also benzine flows coming from the Thermal Power Station at Varna. (The one exception of all the plants in the area is the Sugar Plant in Devnya). The victims of these pollutants are the Varna and Belosslav Lakes, which have long been biologically dead. In addition, however, their waters are directly connected with those of the Black Sea. The Storage Battery Plant in Targovishte is a significant polluter (heavy metals) of the Kamchia River.

Cattle breeding is the second major source of water pollution and directly affects sources of drinking water. Due to a serious lack of water purification stations on cattle farms, non-purified waste waters pour into the various water basins. The same holds for the underground waters, as nitrates, phosphates, and other macroelements used in farming are dissolved and washed away by rains, to appear subsequently in water basins and mineral springs. The Kamchia reservoir, which is the primary source of drinking water for Bourgas and a secondary source for Varna, is an example. Water and sewage experts have stated that the "Komounari" hydro project should not divert waters from the highly polluted Gorna Kamchia River into the Kamchia reservoir. This reservoir, as well as other sources of drinking water for Varna, have old and low-capacity purification stations. During droughts, drinking water is drawn from the reservoir that does not meet sanitary standards.

The third main pollutant is waste water from everyday household activities in cities and small towns. One of the major problems at the Kamchia reservoir is the lack of purified water provided to the town of Kotel. The city of Varna discharges too much impure water. Rainwater overflows onto the beaches. In fact, impure waters from Evksinograd to Sunny Beach pollute the Black Sea.

3. The Inland Landscape, Forest Massifs, and Protected Areas

The different regions of the inland coastal environment have different ecological problems. The most polluted areas are the urban and industrial zones in the cities of Varna and Bourgas. The cleanest are the villages of Varvara and Sinemorets, where recent zoning efforts have restrained the development of tourism. Other unpolluted regions are the eastern parts of the Stara Planina Mountains and Strandzha Mountain, because of their extensive forests and lack of active industrial activity. However, the pollution of the beach line, especially along the urban beaches and in the southern camping regions (e.g., Kavatsi, the Eden Inlet, and the protected Snake Island), needs to be pointed out.

A specific problem in the town of Sozopol is construction with radioactive stone materials from the coal-mines. The gravel under the road asphalt in this region is also radioactive. Another factor - the precipitation of radioactive particles along the shores - is due to constant flowing of the Danube and the Dniestar. The whole situation, although insignificant for tourists, is serious for the people who live there. They suffer the highest rates of illness - cancer, diabetes, high blood pressure - in the country.

A boundary zone established to the north of the village of Sinemorets was abolished three years ago. As a result, during the last three years the beaches and especially the Veleca River have been polluted by all kinds of waste products from tourists. The bottom of the river is covered with bottle glass. People cast their nets from bank to bank all along the river. The fish there are disappearing, as are the otter and various other kinds of aquatic animals.

A major problem for all forests is urbanization - construction, development, aggressive tourism. Experts claim that this is has caused the desiccation of trees and bushes. Several other factors contribute to this drying - polluted air, leaves falling, parasites, fires. Many poor people, mostly minorities (Gypsies), cut down trees for firewood, and some sell the trees at the market in Dobrich. Another serious factor in the forests' destruction is the pasturing of wild pigs and goats. Most of the forest massifs along the Black Sea coast are reforested artificially, since the conditions for natural reproduction do not exist.

The populations of tortoises, hedgehogs, and especially hares, have been greatly reduced due to the use of fertilizers in cultivating fields and farmland. There is a recurrent increase in the number of fallow deer and red deer. The greatest invader of the forests is the Strandzha jackal. Its high population has allowed it to inhabit all forests, even in Dobrudzha. Abandoned and feral cats and dogs are also serious invaders of the forests. Several rare plant species - the forest cyclamen, the torfaceous snowdrop, the Caucasian cowslip, many steppe species - have diminished. The situation is the same for many birds of prey - the Cinereous vulture, the imperial eagle, the buzzard. The great bustard has almost disappeared near the villages of Zmeevo and Kremena, but can be reintroduced if people stop cultivating the land with fertilizers. The sand dune zone can also be restored if the natural status of the sand dunes remains the same.

The protected areas along the Black Sea coast include the Sea Garden in Varna (a city park insufficiently protected from urbanization and pollution) and the Golden Sands and Kobaklaka National Parks near the town of Dobrich (which are highly urbanized). Another protected area, in the Shabla Lake region, is highly polluted by lead shot. Dourankulak Lake is another marvelous natural feature. The preserves along the Black Sea coast are: Perla, Arkutino, Ropotamo, Kaliakra Cape, Baltata, and Kamchia (a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve). Other preserves in the Varna district are: Tiganka, Varbov Dol, Kalfata, and Valchi Prohod. Snake Island near Sozopol is also protected. The real problem for the protected areas is that they are not actually protected from tourist assaults. Protected natural sites like Lavskata Glava, Suhoto Darvo, and Malka Kaleitsa are not being preserved. The very mouth of the Ropotamo River is enclosed by embankments, blocking it to fishing boats and causing it to be covered with slime. The river is gradually becoming marshy. The water lily, torfaceous snowdrop, and white Kamchia lily are disappearing. The new purification station on the Batova River emits smells from its purifying filters. The unique cacti on Snake Island are pulled out and stamped flat by tourists. Near Albena resort, in the dense forest, there are large new tourist homes. There are rumors about organized hunting in some reserves and serious corruption among the foresters in the hunting husbandries.

As a result of improvements of the Kamchia river, it no longer floods the dense forest. This is responsible for the appearance of Dutch elm disease, which causing great damage to elms and ashes.

The legal basis for environmental protection in this region includes: 1) the Environmental Protection Act; 2) the Nature Protection Act; and 3) the Law For the Protection of the Air, Waters, and Soil From Pollution. These matters are also partially discussed in the Law of Territorial and Settlement Structure and the Law of the Mines and Pits. Environmental protection is also discussed in several international conventions, including the Ramsar Convention and the Berne Convention. Some of the most urgent measures have already been mentioned. Modern laws and acts are also needed, as is strict self-control by the state of its economic and industrial activities in relation to ecological conditions. Other needs include: commitment to international conventions including the signing of the Black Sea convention by all interested countries; introduction of "ecopolice" and a system of controls to guard against corruption; substantial international funding of environmental projects; and the activation of ecological education programs.

Recommendations

To protect the diversity of species in Bulgaria, including the Black Sea coast, the following needs should be addressed.

1. Construction along the Black Sea coast should be stopped.

This type of activity obliterates the natural habitats of plant and animal species. For example, the forest area in the "St. Constantine" resort, just above the "Geologist" resort hostel, was divided and distributed among people in accordance with the decrees of the Council of Ministers. Afterwards, villas were constructed in this area, thus destroying the natural habitat of rare orchids and herbaceous plants. The unending construction along the Black Sea coast is unacceptable from the point of view of ecology and landscape planning. This process threatens the appeal and significance of the national resorts. Typical examples in this respect are the "St. Constantine" and "Albena" resorts.

2. Pollution should also be stopped.

Often pollution is caused by the high numbers of visitors at particular Black Sea regions. Apart from halting the polluting process, the number of people that visit threatened regions should be regulated.

3. Land (including agricultural land) management plans should be developed.

The use of coastal forests is currently determined in the respective forest planning projects. Only in urgent cases can amendments be made, arranged according to the specific projects. But plans for the use of all other threatened lands (including agricultural lands) have not been established so far.

Land use plans should prohibit: the lighting of fires, which often causes burning of field borders (this process has increased in frequency during the last few years); the burning of reeds, which destroys the natural habitats of many birds; the destruction of the natural topography of fields and rock formations that present opportunities for survival and protection of many species; and illegal chopping of wood and cutting of shrubs, as well as the illegal gathering of wood fodder.

Limits should also be placed on grazing practices. Pasturing of goats, sheep, and sows has increased in the last two or three years, and has penetrated not only the coastal regions but also the national parks. Unregulated grazing of stock, with its negative influence upon natural biological diversity, constitutes one of the most significant contemporary problems, and the implementation of effective administrative countermeasures is of utmost importance. A typical example of this is the destruction of trees and shrubs in the industrial zone west of Varna, near the Vuzrazhdane district and in the Vinitsa district. There are illegally built sheep and cattle sheds in the gullies in these districts. The extreme grazing pressure activates erosion processes, which are especially significant in the Vinitsa district (as well as some other places).

4. Special attention should be devoted to the protection of ravines.

Apart from protected areas and the lands for which management plans are applied, some ravines near Varna and along the Black Sea coast also require special treatment. The protection of these ravines is of extreme importance for the preservation of the local biodiversity.

5. Strengthen the role of zoos and botanical gardens.

The greatest effort should be made to preserve Bulgaria's biological diversity through the strengthening of the nature protection functions of botanical gardens and zoos. These organizations could administer reserves and protected areas on the condition that they receive practical assistance, and could contribute greatly to the preservation and restoration of Bulgaria's biological diversity.

Appendix 1. Protected Sites in the Black Sea Region

National parks
Zlatni Pyasutsi

Biosphere reserves
Kamchya, Uzounboudzhak

Natural Reserves
Ropotamo, Silkosya, Arkoutino, Morski Pelin, Morski Lylii, Zmiiski Ostrov, Pyasuchna Lylia, Vulchov Prohod, Vurbov Dol, Kirov Dol, Baltata, Kaliakra.

Appendix 2. Typical Species According to Habitat Types

Sand coast
Invertebrates: Ophelia bicornis, Tethina cinorea Vertebrates: Bufo viridis, Lorus orgentatus, Gelochelidon nilotica

Rocky coast
Invertebrates: Littorina neritoides, Pachigraphius mormoratus, Aphrosilus venetor
Vertebrates: Notrix notrix, Locerta murelis, Columba linia

Salted soils
Glenenthe ripicole, Lispe cosaguine
a, Bledius spectabites

Steppes
Invertebrates: Bradyporus desypus, Cicindela hybrida, C. cunuleta
Vertebrates: Aquita orientalis, Perdix perdix, Testudo hermani

Loggos ("Remote forests")
Invertebrates: Agrion scutulum, Pholcus ponticus
Vertebrates: Rona dalmatica, Emys orbiculeres, C. copeolus

Beech forest with evergreen understory
Columber jugolaris, Certhia jannlitis, Glis glis

Mixed oak forest
Invertebrates: Acneria dispar, Scolopendra cingulata
Vertebrates: Dryomys niteadule, Nerus lugoboris, Lacetra preticola pontica

Littoral lakes Dephina longispina, Limocephelus vetulus, Artemia salina, Nitocra jallaciole

Birds
Phelecrocorex pygmeeus, Pelicanus crispus, Acrocephelus orundineceus, Ardea purpurea, Ixobrichus minutus

Appendix 3. Rare and Threatened Species

Rare species
Polidiceps rubricalis
Phoenicopterus raieus
Monachus monachus

Threatened species
Pelobetes siciocus balcanicus
Clenis caspice erubata

Elophes setule
Phalocrocoran aristotelis
Ciconia nigra
Cignus alor
Pernis arivorus
Heliaeetus pernetus

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