Report of the Green Balkans Movement on the Bulgarian National Biological Diversity Conservation Strategy

Hristo Nikolov1, Blagoi Gruev, Dimitar Delipavlov, Dimo Gramatikov, Andon Daraktchiev, Andrei Stojanov, Teodora Ivanova, Boian Petrov, Petko Tzvetkov

1The Council of Representatives of the Green Balkans Movement appointed Hristo Nikolov head of the author's body and managing editor of this report. In addition to the other principal authors listed here, assistance was provided by Martin Marinov, Simeon Martin, Dimitar Dimitrov, Elena Tzvetanova, Antonia Batchvarova, Kalina Tzvetkova, Jivko Djakov, Kiril Bedev, and Ivan Petrov. Hristo Nikolov, Petko Tzvetkov, and Elena Tzvetanova served as editors of this report.

Introduction

In accordance with the objectives defined by the coordinators of the national conservation strategy, the experts of the Green Balkans Movement gathered together to summarize their information on biodiversity in Bulgaria and to prepare the present report. The structure of the report is such that, in addition to serving as a contribution to the NBDCS, it can be used as a guide for all of those who are interested in the protection of biological diversity in our country. It may also be helpful for specialists and regional authorities of the Ministry of Environment (MOE) in carrying out their duties. We hope that the new system for managing protected areas that we propose in this report will be taken into consideration by the executive and legislative bodies.

The report includes summaries and proposals directed especially to the problems connected with protecting natural ecosystems and biological diversity in general in Bulgaria. Because of time and space limitations, emphasis is placed on the protection of rare, endemic, and threatened taxa, and on unique communities in the biogeographical regions of South Bulgaria and the whole Bulgarian Black Sea coast. Section 1 discusses trends in the populations of threatened taxa of plants, reptiles and amphibians, and bats, and proposes recommendations for their preservation. Section 2 reviews the biogeographic regions of Bulgaria and proposes recommendations for improvements in the national system of protected areas. Anthropogenic threats, required legislative and constitutional changes, the possibilities for integrating conservation into planning, and other topics are discussed on a national level in Sections 3, 4, 5, and 6 of the report. We also present commentary on the results of a sociological survey of the population in Blagoevgrad, Bansko, and Dobrinishte.

Information sources. This report is based on studies (both published and unpublished) by the authors, expert evaluations, data from the published literature, data from expeditions carried out by members of the Movement, and other sources. Preference has been given to new information about the state of the biota that has not yet been published and to expert evaluations that have practical application for the protection of biological diversity.

Methodology for obtaining information. The authors presented their information according to a preliminary plan developed by the managing editor. This information was later elaborated and expanded.

Criteria of selection and manner of presentation. To realize better the goals of this report and to make it useful as a reference book for specialists in the field of nature protection, we have made some changes in the order and titles of the assigned topics. As noted above, we have focused on rare, threatened, and endemic species characteristic for South Bulgaria and the Bulgarian Black Sea coast. We have adopted for the purposes of this report the regional distinctions presented by Gruev in his work General Biogeography: Science and Art (1988), in which the basic regions are further divided into sub-regions. The subregions are similar not only in the composition and origin of their biota, but because of their comparable climate and landscape are also similar in terms of the effects of anthropogenic influence.

In discussing each of the groups - plants, amphibians, reptiles, etc. - we have specified selection criteria. Specific recommendations with regard both to legislative and institutional changes and to the actual habitats are given after the discussion of each group. Using biogeographical divisions, we discuss the biodiversity for each region under the following format:

1. Trends in the Populations of Threatened Taxa and Recommendations for Their Preservation

A. Plants

Bulgaria is an especially interesting countries from a floristic and phytogeographic point of view. It is located in the temperate continental zone but occupies a transitional position within it. The country is under the influence of the Mediterranean climate from the south. The Rhodopes rise against that influence, but it penetrates along the river valleys of the Maritsa, Mesta, and Strouma Rivers and in the region of Strandzha Mountain. In these areas, the Mediterranean influence is seen in the occurrence of evergreen brush communities (pseudomaquises), which include such species as Phillirea media L., Quercus coccifera L., Juniperus excelsa Bieb., and others, accompanied by Molineria minuta Parl., Imperata cylindrica P. B., Corynephorus canescens (Pourr.) Breistr., Parvotrisetum myriantum (Bertol.) Chrtek, Euphorbia apios L., Pterocephallus paposus (L.) Coult., Logfia gallica (L.) Cosson et Germ., Medicago coronata (L.) Bartl., and many other grasses.

There are places, called "Mediterranean oases" in our country, where as a result of phytogeographic and orogeographic conditions the Mediterranean species play a dominant role in the formation of plant communities. Such places include the Tchepan and Golo Bardo Mountains in southwestern Bulgaria, the Belogradtchik Nimbus in northwestern Bulgaria, and Trigrad and Tchervena Stena above Batchkovo in the Rhodopes. Areas with submediterranean vegetation occur along the valleys of the Maritsa, Mesta, Strouma Rivers and in the Gornotrakiiska lowlands. The characteristic woody species here include Quercus pubescens Willd., Juniperus oxycedrus L., Paliurus spinachristi Mill., Fraxinus ornus L., and Jasminus fruticans L., which form forest communities or grow in groups with a large number of Mediterranean grass species.

Our flora is also influenced by our proximity to Asia Minor. This accounts for the presence of Front Asian and Pontic species, which form (especially in the Strandzha region) a distinctive flora and vegetation. Most characteristic of Strandzha are the forests of Fagus orientalis Lipsky, which and some species that have been classified as threatened in the Red Data Book of the People's Republic of Bulgaria. Some species not included in the Red Data Book or in the Atlas of the Endemic Plants in Bulgaria are also discussed. They are species new for our flora, having been identified subsequent to the publication of these books.

The species are presented here in three groups: annual and biennial grass plants, perennial grass plants, and trees and bushes. Limiting factors, degree of study, safety measures, and proposals for protection are discussed at the end of each group's description.

Annual and Biennial Grass Plants

1. Silene caliacre D. Jord. et P. Pan. A Bulgarian endemic. It grows on rocky (lime) sites north of the estuary of the Rezovska River and along the Black Sea coast between the villages of Shabla and Kranevo.

2. Medicago bondevii Koz. A Bulgarian endemic. It grows in the xerothermal oak forest zone, in dry grassy and bushy places on eroded maroon forest soils, and on chalky rock substrates. It can be found in the Kresna gorge, the eastern Rhodopes, and in the Thracian plain.

3. Medicago coronata (L.) Bartl. Can be found in dry grassy and stony places on leached maroon forest soils and chalky rock substrates. It is known from the Strouma River valley (Kojuh hill), the eastern Rhodopes, and the Thracian plain.

4. Ammania verticilata (Andr.) Lam. This species was found once in 1893 between the villages of Kamenovo and Ezerovo (near Bourgas) and was never seen again.

5. Astrodaucus litoralis (Bieb.) Drude. Grows on the sands around Varna, Ahtopol, and the village of Sinemoretz (Bourgas region).

6. Turgeniopsis foeniculasea (Fenzl) Boiss. Grows on talus slopes with a limestone rocky base. Can be found in the Rhodopes (Assenovgrad), the village of Markovo, the town of Kritchim and in the Thracian plain.

7. Verbascum purpureum (Janka) Hub.-Mor. Grows in sunny and rocky places in the xerothermal oak forest zone. It is found along the Black Sea coast and in the Sakar hills.

8. Verbascum adrianopolitanum Podp. A Bulgarian endemic. Grows in dry, grassy, and sunny places in thin xerothermal oak forests. Small, isolated populations can be found in the eastern Stara Planina Mountains, the eastern Rhodopes, and at Strandzha Mountain.

9. Aegilops dishasians (Zhuk.) Humpfries. Grows in dry, grassy, and rocky places, pastures, and along roads, individually or in small populations. It is found in the Sakar hills and in the Svilengard region.

10. Aegilopus comosa Sibth. et Sm. This species was found in May 1992 by Professors St. Dimitrov and D. Delipavlov. It is new for the Bulgarian flora. Grows in dry, grassy places with shallow soil on lime rocky substrates. It can be found in the hills between the village of Pastusha and the town of Perushtitsa, and between the Ognianovo train station and Novo Selo in the Plovdiv region.

11. Parvotrizetum myryanthum (Bertol.) Chrtek. A new species for the Bulgarian flora too. Grows on the southern slopes of the Kojuh hill in Struma valley on dry rocky places with shallow soil.

12. Corynephorus divaricatus (Pourr.) Breistr. Grows on sandy soils. Can be found in the valley of the Strouma and near the village of Kulata in the Blagoevgrad region.

13. Anchusa macedonica Deg. et Dorfl. Grows in dry, grassy, and rocky places on gravelly soils together with Juniperus excelsa Bieb. It is a new species for the Bulgarian flora, and can be found to the west of Kresna.

Some of the species in this category are distributed along the Black Sea coast, while others are found in the interior of the country. Important limiting factors for the Black Sea species include excessive tourism, trampling of vegetation, contamination of the beaches, and contamination of the soils. As for their population dynamics, we note that nearly all of these species are poorly investigated, and the density and distribution of their populations are not well known. The limiting factors for species from the other floristic regions are: excessive grazing and trampling; the plowing of the natural grass communities; the draining of wetlands; road, resort, and industrial construction activities; application of chemicals in agriculture; and the picking of herbs and flowers. Studies of the reproduction, development, and populations of these species are inadequate, and in fact the degree of investigation generally of these species is insufficient. In order to preserve the species listed above (which are not as yet legally protected) they must be added to the list of protected plants. Protected areas should be declared in at least one of the locations for all of the mentioned species.

Perennial Grass Plants

1. Minuartia rumelica P. Pan. A Bulgarian endemic. Grows in dry rocky and grassy places on limestone terrain between the town of Tchirpan and the village of Shishmantzi (Thracian plain).

2. Minuartia bulgarica Vel. A Bulgarian endemic. Grows in rocky dry places in the xerothermal oak forests above 1600 m a.s.l. in the central and eastern Stara Planina Mountains, Tchepan, Vitosha, Rila, Sredna gora, Sakar, and Iambol Bakadzhik.

3. Noccea rhodopensis F. K. Meyer. A Bulgarian endemic. Grows on lime rocky terrains on humus-carbonate soils in the xerothermal oak forest zone. It is found in the central Rhodopes near Batchkovo and Asenovgrad.

4. Medicago rhodopaea Vel. A Bulgarian endemic. Grows in dry, grassy, and rocky places on lime substrates. It is found in the central and eastern Rhodopes, the Thracian plain, the Tundzha valley, and the eastern Stara Planina Mountains.

5. Bunium ferulaceum Sibth. et Sm. Grows along or in small groupings in dry grassy, places on the shallow gravelly soils of the eastern Rhodopes, neighboring the towns of Kurdzhali and Momchilgrad. In the beginning of this century it was collected by the Czech botanist Podpera in Chaltepe, Eastern Rhodopes, but it has never been found there since then.

6. Apium noddiflorum (L.) Lag. Grows in marshy and swampy places on the Black Sea coast, near Varna and Bourgas.

7. Centaurium maritimum (L.) Fritsch. Grows in forest glades and shrubby places in the xerothermic oak forest belt. It is found to the south of the town of Ahtopol, in the region of Strandzha mountain.

8. Cressa cretica L. Grows in moist, salty clay near the village of Primorsko, in the Bourgas region.

9. Convolvulus holosericeus Bieb. Grows in dry places with shallow, gravelly soils in the neighborhood of the villages of Chouchouligovo and D. Spanchevo, in the Blagoevgrad region. It has not been collected since 1932.

10. Onosma thracica Vel. A Bulgarian endemic. Grows in dry, grassy places on limestone terrain, on humus-carbonate or leached soils, in the xerothermic oak forest zone. It is found at the Black Sea coast, in north-eastern Bulgaria, Eastern Stara Planina, the Znepolski region and the Thracian plain.

11. Anthemis jordanovii Stoj. et Acht. A Bulgarian endemic. Grows in dry grassy places on shallow soil with lime base. Found at Strandzha Mountain.

12. Achillea thracica Vel. A Bulgarian endemic. Grows in dry, grassy places in thin brush on maroon forest soils in the xerothermal oak forest zone. It can be found in the Thracian plain and the Sakar hills.

13. Centaurea immanueles - loewii Deg. Balkan endemic. Grows on eroded, shallow maroon forest soils in the southern Pirin Mountains and the Strouma River valley.

14. Colchicum diampolis Delip et Ceschm. A Bulgarian endemic. Grows in damp glades and forests upon deep alluvial or alluvial meadow soils. Found in the Tundzha valley (the Iambol and Aitos regions) and the Znepolsky region (Kiustendil).

15. Tulipa splendens Delip. A Bulgarian endemic. Grows in corn fields and field borders in the xerothermal oak forest zone, on deep black-earth (humus) soils on silicate base. It is found in the area of Iambol.

16. Tulipa aureolina Delip. A Bulgarian endemic. Grows in dry, grassy places and thin brush in the xerothermal oak forest zone south of Aitos.

17. Liparis loeselii (L.) Rich. Grows in damp, boggy places. A single community with Osmunda regalis L. has been found. It is found near the village of Eleshnitsa in the Petritch region (Strouma River valley).

18. Hypericum setiferum Stef. A Bulgarian endemic. Described in 1929 from Mladezhki halm, Plovdiv. It has not been seen since.

The limiting factors for the representatives of this group from the Black Sea coast are the same as those affecting the annual and biennial grass plants. For species from the interior of the country, the limiting factors include excessive grazing, trampling, soil erosion, channelization of streams, construction of resort villages, mining activities, extraction of minerals, dam and dike construction, and road construction. Protection measures for the species in this group are the same as for the annual and biennial grass plants.

Trees and Shrub Plants

1. Ephedra campilopoda C. A. Mey. Grows on sunny rocks in the Strouma River valley (Damianovo) in the Blagoevgrad region.

2. Salix pentandra L. Glacial relict. Grows in boggy places in the coniferous forest zone. Found only on Vitosha Mountain.

3. Salix retusa L. Glacial relict. Grows in rocky places in the alpine zone of the Rila Mountains.

4. Salix hastata L. Grows in the Rila Mountains on rocky places in the alpine zone.

5. Quercus coccifera L. Pre-glacial relict. Grows in the Strouma and Mesta River valleys and on the southern slopes of the Pirin Mountains. It prefers dry slopes with erosive terrains of forest soils with silicate and lime base.

6. Quercus hartwissiana Stev. Pre-glacial relict. Grows on temperate damp soils along the rivers of Strandzha Mountain.

7. Quercus mestensis Bond. et Gan. A Bulgarian endemic. Grows on the southern slopes of the Rila Mountains, to the west of the village of Belitsa in the Sofia region.

8. Spiraea salicifolia L. Grows in damp places by the Dospatska River near the village of Sarnitsa in the western Rhodopes.

9. Spiraea crenata L. Grows in gravel and rocky places on carbonate humus soils. It is found in northeastern Bulgaria between the Kaspitchan railway station and the village of Pliska.

10. Spiraea hypericifolia L. Grows among other shrubs in the xerothermal oak zone on humus-carbonate soil. Can be found on the Karasivria peak near Stara Zagora.

11. Pyrus bulgarica Kutath. et Sachok. A Bulgarian endemic. Grows on dry terrains in the xerothermal oak forest zone of the east Stara Planina and Strandzha Mountains.

12. Amygdalus webii Spach. Grows in dry rocky places in the southern part of the Strouma River valley, on Kojuh Hill near the town of Petrich and west of the town of Sandanski.

13. Sorbus borbasii Jav. Grows on temperate damp soils in the beech forest zone. It can be found in the central part of the Rhodopes (near Smolian), Sredna gora, and in the central Stara Planina Mountains.

14. Sorbus mougeottii Soy et Gord. Grows in the beech forest zone on temperate damp soils. It is found in the central Stara Planina Mountains at Korudere and near the village of Ravnogor in the Plovdiv region.

15. Genista pilosa L. Grows on dry grassy and rocky places, mainly in the oak zone. It can be found in West Stara planina and in Vitosha.

16. Genista germanica L. Grows in grassy glades on brown forest soils. It is found in the western Rhodopes (Semiza peak and Shiroka poliana).

Important limiting factors for these tree and shrub plant species include the excessive cutting of the forest, livestock grazing (especially as it affects the young plants), trampling, soil erosion, and occasionally fire. The degree of research for some of these species is insufficient. To protect them, it is necessary to determine more precisely where they are located to secure some of these sites as protected areas.

Summary and Recommendations

The unique Bulgarian flora includes about 3500 species of plants. The endemic species are of greatest interest. Bulgarian endemics amount to 128 species, while there are another 36 species of Balkan endemics that are found most typically in Bulgaria. We are of the opinion, however, that 10-15 more species that have been described in the recent years can be included in this list. We have also included some endemic species discovered in the last few years that can be considered new for the Bulgarian flora. In addition to the endemic plants, some of the species listed as threatened in the Red Data Book of the People's Republic of Bulgaria, Volume 1 are discussed in our work.

Over the last 70-80 years, more than 30 species of plants have disappeared from the Bulgarian flora, and an equal number of species are classified as "threatened" due to a broad spectrum of negative factors. The most critical of these are "meliorative" activities (such as the plowing up of natural grass communities and the draining of wetlands and river floodplains); extraction of minerals; construction of dams and dikes; logging; industrial, resort, and road construction activities; the application of chemicals in agriculture; picking of herbs and flowers; soil erosion; excessive grazing and trampling by livestock.

1. The status of the following species of plants in the Red Data Book of the People's Republic of Bulgaria should be changed from "rare" to "threatened": Juniperus sabina; Salix hastata; Rhododendron myrtifolium; Calluna vulgaris; Saponaria stranjensis; Erica arborea; Amygdalus webbii; Ilex aquifolium; Daphne pontica; D. laureola; Chamaecytisus frivaldzkyanus; Astragalus aitosensis; and A. thracicus.

2. The locations of the following plant species should receive immediate protection by declaring new protected areas or expanding existing areas:

3. Ex situ plant conservation efforts should be strengthened in the following ways:

B. Amphibians and Reptiles

With regard to the status and conservation of the two large vertebrate classes Amphibia and Reptilia, we believe that it is very important and necessary to stress the following facts:

1. On the whole, both of these classes have been studied to a very unsatisfactory and insufficient degree within Bulgaria. The various local investigations of these groups do not give a clear and adequate description of their population and ecology for the entire territory of the country.

2. Most studies have been carried out using subjective and outdated methods.

3. Nearly all studies have been concerned with specifying the species present, their taxonomic classification, or their geographic distribution within the borders of Bulgaria. Studies at a higher level (i.e., population, biocenotic, and ecological) on species within the two classes or on the classes as wholes have been occasional, or do not exist at all.

4. Most of the research data are relatively old and lacking in relevance to the current state of these classes.

These facts give us serious reason to think that nearly all representatives of these classes are inadequately understood in terms of their ecological and population status in Bulgaria. Because of these facts, their role in preserving biodiversity and the biological equilibrium of the natural and cultural ecosystems of this country cannot be specified.

The most significant and general criteria for selecting species from the two mentioned classes are:

1) They have limited distribution within Bulgaria.

2) They have a comparatively high degree of imperilment.

3) They have low population density.

4) The representatives of these classes have low ecological plasticity and are specialized to certain changing but limited parameters and conditions of life.

5) Because of the lack of typical Bulgarian relict and endemic representatives, we do not use these characteristics as criteria for setting priorities. We recommend, however, that in determining the strategy of nature protection with regard to animals from the classes Amphibia and Reptilia, consideration be given to the presence in the Bulgarian herpetofauna of species that in Europe can be found only on the Balkan peninsula. As examples we can cite Pelobates syriacus balcanicus, Mauremus caspica rivulata, Ophisaurus apodus thracius, Ophysops elegans ehrenbergii, Typhlops vermicularis vermicularis, Eryx jaculus turcicus, and Coluber rubriceps rubriceps.

Class: Amphibia

Order: Anura; Family: Pelobatidae

Pelobates syriacus balcanicus

Few in number, spotty distribution. In addition to locations mentioned in the Red Data Book of the People's Republic of Bulgaria and in the specialized literature, three new locations have been discovered along the Danube and the northern Bulgarian Black Sea coast (Stoianov, 1987, 1989). For the country as a whole, the species is insufficiently known. The brief study by Stoianov (1986) of the population in the Kresna region is an exception. Limiting factors: draining of wetlands, land reclamation, and destruction of the food base with insecticides. Status: considerably lower numbers than that of the other salientians in the locations. Legislative changes: changing the species status from "threatened" to "strongly threatened with extinction."

Order: Caudata; Family: Salamandridae

Triturus alpestris alpestris

Present in isolated, spotty locations. A glacial relict. Not studied in Bulgaria. Limiting factors: draining and contamination of the lakes and pools it inhabits, and the planting of these with perch (Perca fluviatilis) and trout (Trutta furis). According to personal observations and information from the literature, the population in some of the locations is acceptably high, while in others it has been reduced to a dangerous minimum.

Class: Reptilia

Order: Testudinata; Fam.: Testudinidae; Fam.: Emydidae

We place highest priority on the species Testudo hermanni hermanni, Testudo graeca ibera, and Mauremis caspica rivulata. The last has the most limited distribution in the country for species in this order. The populations of the first two species have decreased alarmingly in Bulgaria over the last decades (literature information and personal observation). Relatively well preserved habitats exist only in some of regions of Bulgaria. The three species can be considered poorly investigated in terms of their biology and ecology over the Bulgarian portion of their range. Data about their populations are imprecise. Limiting factors: poaching, changes in the landscape, intensive development of transportation, and others. Legislative changes: include Testudo h. hermani and T. g. ibera in the category "threatened."

Order: Squamata; Suborder: Sauria; Fam.: Angulidae

Ophisaurus apodus thracius

A species with limited distribution in Bulgaria. There have been virtually no studies of it. The information on newly found locations are the exception. Limiting factors: tourism, poaching, transportation development, changes in the landscape. It is listed as "threatened." Because of the absolute lack of information, we recommend that the protection measures in the Bulgarian Red Data Book be adhered to until the populations have been better studied.

Fam.: Boidae

Eryx jaculus turcicus

A sporadically distributed species. Not studied at all in Bulgaria. Probable limiting factors: changes in the landscape and poaching. The species is listed in the Red Data Book of the People's Republic of Bulgaria as "rare." Legislative changes: in Europe, this species can be found only in the Balkans, and its preservation must be a matter of the highest priority. We recommend that all of its known locations be promulgated as protected territories.

Fam.: Colubridae

For the sake of brevity, we shall discuss six species from this family together: Coluber rubriceps, Elaphe situla, E. quatuorlineata, Malpolon monspessulanus, E. longissima, and Telescopus falax. It is possible to discuss them together due to similarities in their biology. Their distribution is quite limited and with some exceptions (E. q. sauromates and E. longissima) they occur mainly in southern Bulgaria. Information about some of the species and subspecies (C. r. rubriceps, E. q. sauromates, and T. f. fallax) can be considered completely lacking. Some data on the biology and population of the other taxa can be found in the works of Beshkov, which describe the populations at Malashevska Mountain. On the whole, however, these species are unstudied. In general, the most important limiting factors are: intensive trade, poaching, and various changes in the landscape they inhabit. Three of the species have been listed in the Red Data Book of People's Republic of Bulgaria as "threatened" (C. r. rubriceps, E. l. longissima, and E. s. situla) and two as "rare" (T. falax and E.q. quatuorlineata). One (M. monspressulanus) does not have protected status.

Summary and Recommendations

It must be noted that the above mentioned representatives of the families Typhlopidae and Boidae and those from the family Colubridae, which we have given high priority in this work, occur in only a few small populations as compared to all other species of the suborder Serpentes. This plainly suggests that changes must be made in a future edition of the Red Data Book of the People's Republic of Bulgaria. Volume II (Animals). We propose the following changes:

1. The subspecies Elaphe quatourlineata sauromates should be listed in the Red Data Book under the category "threatened."

2. The species Malpolon monspressulanus should be listed in the Red Data Book under the category "rare."

3. The status of Telescopus fallax should be changed from "rare" to "threatened."

Because of time and space limitations, we cannot present all of the available and required information on these and other species, or on this group as a whole. We believe that as the national biological diversity conservation strategy is prepared and implemented, this information is not only desirable but obligatory. The Green Balkans Movement has prepared a report in which all of this information is presented. The experts of our organization have made a decision that this report should be placed at the disposal of all who would like to become acquainted with this information.

The chief limiting factors for the amphibians and the reptiles are intensive human activity near their habitats, poaching from foreign and native collectors, burning of vegetation in the wetlands, and other changes in the landscape.

Another significant problem is that there have been no young specialists working in the area of field herpetology in Bulgaria for the last several decades. We do not believe that there is a lack of people interested in working in this area. However, there does not exist a scientific group for the study and preservation of amphibians and reptiles. Neither can the necessary scientific literature in this area be readily found in Bulgarian. Many enthusiasts with a desire to protect amphibians and reptiles gather rare species for artificial breeding and reproduction without having knowledge of the appropriate conditions.

The economic crisis of the last few years has forced some people with limited environmental awareness to start trading in rare species of reptiles. Not the least of these activities has been the gathering and breeding of vipers (Vipera ammodytes) for their venom. This has taken place without any controls and in the absence of data about their populations. The government has not made any effort to get this situation under control.

The basic problems in preserving the herpetofauna result from the lack of an adequate foundation of contemporary legislation that takes into account faunistic and population studies. It is urgent that penalties for killing amphibians and reptiles be increased several times over - enough to make them higher than the prices of the animals in the pet shops in western countries and to reflect the inflation processes in our economy. We would not be mistaken in saying that the inspectors in the Regional Authorities of the MOE lack the knowledge necessary to perform their protective functions. In addition, the time they are able devote to this problem is insufficient, due both to the lack of available time and the vastness of the regions for which they are responsible. The border control checkpoints and customs procedures con-stitute a weak link in the chain of enforcement.

We are not able here to discuss all the problems connected with the status and needs of the amphibians and reptiles, but we have specialists and volunteers available to participate in working on and carrying out a complete program for the study and preservation of the herpetofauna.

C. Bats

As a group, the bats are poorly understood by the public. They belong to the order Chiroptera. More than 1000 species are known. They can be found on all the world's continents and in a wide range of biotopes. Of the 30 species that are found in Europe, 28 are known to occur in Bulgaria. This group, so important a part of our vertebrate fauna, has been poorly studied due to its nocturnal habits, the inaccessibility of its dwelling places, and the difficulties involved in observing and catching them (which requires specialized tools and techniques). For these reasons, the few studies that have been carried out until now concern mainly species composition and distribution. Information about bat ecology (e.g., density, dynamics of populations, interspecific relationships) is extremely limited and for most species is entirely lacking.

These unique creatures - as vulnerable and defenseless as they are - require our active protection!

(Note: the categories of threat used in the following species accounts - "threatened," "vulnerable," "rare," and "not threatened" - follow the definitions in R.E. Stebbings, The Conservation of European Bats, London, 1988).

Family: Rhinolophidae

Rhinolophus blasii; Rh. euryale; Rh. mehelyi

These three species will be discussed together due to of the similarity in their biology and distribution. They can be found throughout the country, but more often in the southern parts. Exclusively cave inhabitants, they form comparatively large colonies, often with other cave-dwelling species. Information about their distribution and biology is incomplete. Status: these species are classified as "vulnerable" because many dwelling sites can be easily approached.

Family: Vespertilionidae

Myotis myotis; M. blythi

These two species will also be discussed together because of their similarities. They are distributed throughout the country, are typically found in caves, and are highly colonial species. There are often may as many as several thousands of individuals in the colonies. It is well known that they migrate between winter grounds and summer breeding areas. Status: "vulnerable" due to the destruction of their dwelling sites and (even more) because visitors to the caves kill them. The populations of the colonies has strongly decreased in some regions of the country.

Myotis capaccinii

This species is encountered relatively often, and forms large colonies (as many as ten thousand individuals). It undertakes long migrations between its winter and summer grounds. Status: we place this species in the "vulnerable" category. It is listed in the Red Data Book of the People's Republic of Bulgaria as "rare."

Myotis emarginatus

Found in the southern parts of the country, inhabiting caves, galleries, and rock outcrops. Often forms mixed colonies of 200-500 individuals. In the winter it may migrate into Greece. Status: we are inclined to classify this species as "threatened" due to the easy accessibility and lack of protection of its dwelling places. It is listed in the Red Data Book of the People's Republic of Bulgaria as "rare."

Myotis bechsteinici, M. nattereri, M. mystacinus, M. brandti, and M. daubentoni

These five species occur in Bulgaria, but information about their distribution and biology is totally lacking. We place them in the "rare" category.

Plecotus austriacus

Distributed throughout the lower elevations of the entire country. Often inhabits buildings and, more rarely, galleries, hollows, and caves. Studies of their biology have never been carried out in Bulgaria. Status: we place this species in the category "not threatened."

Plecotus auritus

Only a few representatives of the species have been identified in Bulgaria, from the mountainous regions. A "rare" species.

Miniopterus schreibersi

Found throughout the country. It is the most numerous of the cave-dwelling species, forming the largest colonies found in the Bulgarian caves (into the tens of thousands). Migrates between winter and summer caves. Status: data from the literature indicates that the populations in many colonies are decreasing rapidly.

Eptesicus serotinus

Occurs throughout the country. Inhabits garrets, hollows, and galleries. There is no information available concerning its biology. Status: "not threatened," however the scarcity of information makes it difficult to define strictly its conservation status.

Pipistrellus savii, P.nathusii, P. kuhli, and Vespertilio murinus

It is well known that these species do not form large colonies in Bulgaria. They are found mainly in buildings and hollows and are dominant among the bat communities of the "non-cave-dwelling" species. Further studies of their distribution are extremely necessary.

Nyctalus noctula

Found throughout the country. It typically dwells in the hollows of old trees, or (more rarely) inhabits buildings. Usually lives in small groups. Status: "vulnerable", based on the large-scale cutting of old trees.

Nyctalus lasiopterus, N. leisleri, Barbastella barbastellus, Eptesicus nilssoni, and Tadarida teniotis (the only representative of the family Molossidae).

For all of these species, Bulgaria is on the boundary of their geographic range. Further studies are needed of their occurrence and distribution in the country. We place them in the category "rare."

Summary and Recommendations

The factors that currently limit or threaten bat populations in Bulgaria can be grouped into the following categories:

1) Destruction of dwelling places and shelters (the felling of old forests and individual hollow trees; exploitation of the caves through urbanization, use of them for warehouses and dairies, and other processes; detonation of caves during the development of quarries and roads; the plugging up of cave entrances; destruction of old buildings and other human structures).

2) Disturbance of the colonies by people, which is especially damaging the reproductive period (causing newborn bats to fall to the ground and die).

3) Direct killing due to superstitions and ignorance, often by kindling fires in the entrances of the caves.

4) Declines in the food base, including the destruction of insect populations with insecticides (an assumption that must be confirmed or rejected by competent officials) and declines in the quality of reservoirs, above whose open water surface many bats hunt.

It is important to stress here that existing legislation dealing with the preservation and protection of these vertebrates is inadequate and inefficient. The legal protection of more than 30 caves that are known to shelter bats is praiseworthy, but this protection is absolutely fictitious. At present all of the colonies are freely accessible, there being no doors or any form of control over admittance to the caves. No one has been penalized as a result of encroachment on bat habitats, regardless of the fact that all 28 species are protected by an order of the Committee for the Protection of the Environment (the old name of the Ministry of Environment) - Order No. 1021/04.11.1986. This order imposed a fine of 25 lv (approximately 1 $US) for a killed animal!

The following measures are recommended as necessary for the preservation and protection of the bats in general.

Legislation

Updating of the present law is urgently needed to give meaningful protection to the bats and their dwelling places and to restrict all activities that threaten their existence. All officials connected with nature protection should be acquainted with the legislation and take necessary measures for its strict and efficient enforcement. This includes officials of the Ministry of Environment, the Ministry of Agriculture, the Committee of Forests, the Regional Authorities of the Ministry of Environment and the Committee of Forests, local authorities, and nongovernmental organizations for nature protection.

Educational activities

Educational materials concerning the bats should be prepared, including printed materials, radio and TV transmissions, lectures, and films. Appropriate texts should also be provided for use in the secondary schools.

Research

The poor state of knowledge about the Bulgarian bat fauna makes it difficult to determine the exact conservation status for each species. Further investigations are absolutely necessary so that adequate measures may be defined and taken. The training of specialists in this sphere of science is also necessary.

Collaboration

Collaborative bat conservation activities should be encouraged at all levels, and should involve local nature protection organizations, school groups, caving clubs, and others; specialists from neighboring countries who are working upon similar problems; and international institutions such as the Chiroptera Specialist Group of the IUCN Species Survival Commission, the European Bat Research Symposia, and Bat Conservation International.

As a part of the National Biological Diversity Conservation Strategy, the study and preservation of the Bulgarian bat fauna will require that a complete program, treating all the relevant problems, be developed. This program must include concrete measures for the preservation of each species. The Green Balkans Movement has the specialists necessary to develop such a program and is ready to begin its carrying out this work with volunteers if minimum funding can be provided.

2. The Biogeographic Regions of Bulgaria and Recommendations for Areas Requiring Additional Protection

Bulgaria is situated within the European-West Siberian portion of the Palearctic biogeographical region and the biome of the mixed deciduous forests of the northern hemisphere.

Using as a base the biota and biotic communities, as conditioned by climatic, geographical, historical, and other factors, its territory can be divided into five biogeographical regions (see Gruev's General Geography): Northern Bulgarian, Middle Bulgarian, Southern Bulgarian, Bulgarian Black Seaside, and High Mountainous. Situated as it is in a transitional climatic zone between the continental and Mediterranean zones, Bulgaria has many more plant and animal species, and also more endemic species, when compared to Central Europe. Its flora and fauna are composed of Eurosiberian, Central European, Atlantic, Mediterranean, Pontic, Subiranian, Euro-Asian and other elements. Endemic forms from different geological ages occur here.

In this section of our report we provide brief characterizations of the different biogeographical regions and stress the specific features of the biota and the communities in each of them. We also discuss the active threats to biological diversity and make recommendations for new protected areas.

A. Southern Bulgarian Biogeographical Region

This region includes areas in southern Bulgaria under the influence of the transitional Mediterranean climate. This is the region where most of the representatives of the Mediterranean floral and faunal element can be found. This is the only region of the country in which transitional Mediterranean plant communities, very similar to those of the Mediterranean itself, are typical. These are the so-called pseudomaquises.

Strumsko-Mestensky Subregion

This subregion covers the Strouma River valley up to Simitly, the Mesta River valley up to the Ognianovo-Breznitsa border, and the foothills of the surrounding mountains up to 900-1000 m a. s. l. Because of the climatic peculiarities around Slavyanka and Belasitsa, the Mediterranean plants and animals in that area extend over 1500 m a. s. l. - higher than in any other Bulgarian mountain region. This is the only place in the country where Quercus coccifera L. can be found among the other species of the pseudomaquises (near the villages of Kamenitsa, Kulata, Novo Hodjovo, Girmen, Debren, and Kalimantsi).

Small residual communities of Quercus virgiliana Ten., Q. frainetto Ten., Q. pubescens Willd., Platanus orientalis L., Carpinus orientalis Mill and relict forests of Castanea sativa Mill are very characteristic. The region is the richest in Bulgaria in Mediterranean plant and animal species and is characterized by a very high level of endemism. Endemic plants here include Minuartia dilijanae P. Pan, Sedum collicoferi Stef., Anchusa macedonica Deg. et Dorfl, Centaurea immanuelis Deg., Parvotrizeum myrianthum (Berol.) Chrtek, Hypericum setiferum Stef., and Amygdalus webbii Spach.

Many representatives of the class Myriapoda and the order Lepidoptera and others are present among the endemic invertebrate animals. Galeodes graecus is among the rare animals representative of the insects from the tropical order Embioptera.

Rare amphibians and reptiles, including Pelobates siriacus balcanicus Kar., P. fuscus Laur., Mauremys caspica rivulata Gmelin, Thyphlops v. vermicularis Mer., Eryx jaculus turcicus Oliv., Elaphe situla leopardina Bonaparte, Elaphe q. quatuorlineata Laccep., Malpolon m. monspessulanus Herm., and Telescopus f. fallax Fleischmann can be observed in scattered micropopulations.

The region is very rich ornithologically. Part of the data we used was provided by members of the Green Balkans and associates of the Bulgarian Ornithological Center at the Institute of Zoology at the Bulgarian Academy of Science (BAS). Of great interest among the birds of prey are Pandion haliaetus L., Circaetus gallicus Gm., Accipiter brevipes Severtzov, Aquila chrysaetos L., Bubo bubo L. Nests of Neophron percnopterus L., Buteo rufinus Cretzchmer and others have been discovered in the region. A mixed colony of Glareola pratincola L. and Sterna hirundo L. exists on the Strouma River islands.

Burhinus oedicnemus L., Charadrius dubius Scop., Petronia petronia L., Monticola solitarius L., Sitta neumayer Mich., Lanius nubicus (Licht.), Sylvia cantilans Pall., S. melanocephala Gm., S. hortensis Gm., Corvus corax L. nest in the region. The migration path Via Aristotelis passes here. As an example, waves of migrating birds, such as the Falconiformes, Sylviidae, Muscicapidae, Prunellidae, Anthus and others, can be observed in the "Rupite" protected area.

The subregion is densely populated, but there are still well preserved small natural communities in the river valleys and in the surrounding mountains. The semi-intensive character of agriculture in the area, along with its rugged terrain, have allowed for the preservation of its biological diversity.

Important threats in the subregion include:

The following areas should be declared protected areas:

Eastern Rhodope subregion

This subregion includes the Yellow Branch river valleys on the west, the "Tchukata-Gorata" hill on the north, and the Turkish border on the south and southwest. Sub-mediterranean communities of Quercus pubescens, Carpinus orientalis, Juniperus oxycedrus, Fagus orientalis, Quercus cerris, Q. frainetto, Q. dalechampii, and Pinus nigra are present in this area.

The pseudomaquises are found in the most eastern and northeastern parts of the subregion (Ivailovgrad, Mandritsa, Belopoliane). The subregion represents the western border of the range of Fagus orientalis. Endemic plants found here include Verbascus juruk Stef., Quercus thracica Stef. et Ned. and Astragalus thracicus Griseb. Endemic animals include representatives of the class Myriapoda and the order Orthoptera and others.

Rare animals here include many species of reptiles and birds. Among the rare reptiles found in the area are Malpolon monspessulanus, Elaphe q. sauromates Pall., Typhlops vermicularis. Near the village of Mandritsa there are fields of Ophisops elegans ehrenbergii and Mauremys c. rivulata (personal observations). Ophisaurus apodus Pall. is also rarely found.

The subregion is very interesting from an ornithological perspective, being rich in rare species. The data we present here result from our own observations and from joint expeditions with members of the Bulgarian Bird Protection Society and do not pretend to be comprehensive. Very impressive is the high number of Ciconia nigra L. (18 nesting pairs) and Neophron percnopterus (10 pairs). In the area of the village of Madzharovo are the only known habitats in Bulgaria of Gyps fulvus Hablizl (10-12 pairs) (1992). Aegypius monachus L. has been observed in the area, but its nests have not yet been found. The nesting of Aquila chrysaetus, Buteo rufinus, Milvus migrans, and Pandion haliaetus is this area is certain. A young Haliaeetus albisilla L. has also been observed. Here is also found the only known colony of Ardea cinerea in the country. It is situated on the rocks and has 5 nests. The area is also characterized by high numbers of Corvus corax.

Agriculture and the livestock grazing in this region are semi-intensive. This and the closeness of the national border contributed to the retention of the subregion's biological diversity. A sure threat, however, are the plans for the construction of the hydroelectric complex "Gorna Arda." We hope that the Ministry of Environment will ban this project.

From the point of view of protection, special attention deserves to be given to the natural biological communities along the whole Arda River valley, its tributaries, and the nearby hills. The whole region along the southern part of the watershed up to the national border should be placed within an appropriate IUCN Category V-VI protected area. All unique natural locations and communities must be mapped and must acquire the status of protected areas, regardless of their size. Examples include: the Danbla peak near Momchilgrad (a field of Bunium ferulaceum and Tulipa rhodopaea); the well preserved ecosystems along the valleys of the Biala Reka and Malka Arda Rivers; the lower valley of the Arda River; and especially the territories with the highest densities of nesting Gyps fulvus and Ciconia nigra and the Ardea cinerea colony.

Dolnomarishko-Dolnotundzhanski subregion

This subregion covers the lower valleys of the Maritsa and Tundzha Rivers. On the west it extends to the "Tchukata-Gorata" and the Harmanly River. On the east it extends to the Popovska River. On the north it reaches the Harmanly, the southern part of Sakar, and the area between the Dervensky hills and the line from the Malko Sharkovo reservoir to Razdel.

Transitional Mediterranean communities of Quercus pupescens, Carpinus orientalis, Paliurus spinachristi and others are characteristic for the area. The pseudo-maquises are best developed in the areas around the villages of Mezek and Sivata reka in the Svilengrad region. In some places natural formations of relict Pinus nigra can be found. Along with a great number of Mediterranean plants found only in this area, some Tertiary relicts of the Balkan subendemic and Front Asia flora can also be found.

The fauna is rich in southern and thermophilic species. This is the only area where Vipera aspis balcanica, a Bulgarian paleoendemic, has been found. (Special studies of this species are necessary because of the possibility that small populations may yet exist).

The herpetofauna of the region is poorly known. Ophisaurus apodus is found here more often and in Central Sakar than in the other subregions. Ophisops elegance ehrenbergii, Eryx jaculus turcicus, and Mauremys caspica are observed much more rarely. Extremely rare is Elaphe s. leopardina - known from just a single observation. In all biotopes of the region Testudo graeca and Testudo hermanni can be observed.

The ornithofauna of the region is relatively well known as a result of several expeditions that have been carried out by members of the Green Balkans. Species rare for Europe and for the interior of the country can still be observed here. These species are: Buteo rufinus (14 pairs), Milvus migrans (7 pairs), Aquila heliaca (4 pairs), Circaetus gallicus (5 pairs), Neophron percnopterus (2-5 pairs), Falco subbuteo (3 pairs), Bubo bubo (2 pairs), and Aquila pommarina (4 pairs). The numbers of Ciconia nigra are good (10-15 pairs). Exceptional for the region are Pernis apivorus (5 pairs), Hieraaetus pennatus (1 pair), Accipiter brevipes (2 pairs), Falco vespertinus (22 pairs), and Accipiter gentilis (2 pairs). Hieraaetus fasciatus, Aquila rapax, Elanus caeruleus - birds are not seen in the interior of the country - have been observed here at least once.

Melanocorypha yeltoniensis was observed for the first time in Bulgaria in this region. A small nesting group of Falco naumanni, existing up to 1981, has been destroyed.

The sand islands and sand bars along Maritsa River are the only consistent nest locations of Haematopus ostralegus (7 pairs), Burhinus oedicnemus (2-3 pairs), and Chlidonias niger (2 pairs) in the interior of the country. The rare Charadrius dubius and Sterna hirundo still nest on the islands.

Myomimus roachi bulgaricus and Myotis emarginatus are interesting representatives of the mammals.

The natural ecosystems in the region have been completely destroyed, but some small locations, scattered throughout the territory, are preserved. On the whole we can conclude that the diversity of species is relatively well preserved due to the weak anthropogenic influence, which in turn is due to the proximity of the border.

Strandzha subregion

This region is unique from a biogeographic perspective. This is the only region in Europe where relict plant communities of Colchis (south euxinian) species are developed. They include Fagus orientalis, Carpinus orientalis, Quercus delechampii, Q. hartwissiana and a number of other Quercus. The most important feature, and one that makes Strandzha unique in Europe, is the presence of evergreen and deciduous south euxinian plants. Among them are Rhododendron ponticum L., Teucrium latifolium D'Urv., Epimedium pubigerum Morren et Decne, Daphne pontica L., Vaccinium arctostaphylos L. Only in this region can the Mediterranean plants Erica arborea L., Trifolium ligusticum Balb ex Loisel, Cistus salvifollius L. be found. Likewise, only here can the pre-glacial relict Mespilus germanica and the arctic evergreen frutex Calluna vulgaris L. (Salisb) be found. A subendemic species for the Strandzha region is Sapanaria stranjensis. Bulgarian and endemics in the region are Veronica turrilliana Stoj et Stef. and Anthemis jordanovii Stoj. et Acht. The rare Balkan endemics Oenanthe tenuifolia Boiss and Asperula involucrata Wahlend can only be found here. The Strandzha fauna is characterized by a high percentage of Mediterranean and Iranian-Turanian animals. Many relict and endemic invertebrates are found here. Some of them are Carpathica bielowskii (from Gastropoda), Lithobius macolipes (from Myriapoda), Poecilimon heinrichii (from Orthoptera). The fauna of the Strandzha subregion is actually more similar to that of Asia Minor than that of neighboring Bulgarian subregions. For example, the only endemic mammal in Bulgaria (Myominus roachi bulgaricus), whose related forms are widespread in West Copetdak, is found here.

Rare species of Reptilia, such as Elaphe longissima longissima, Malpolon monspessulanus, Elaphe q. sauromates, Ophisaurus apodus, and Lacerta strigata are found throughout the region. Testudo graeca and T. hermanni can still be found in the region, although their densities have decreased.

Our studies in the region indicate that the ornithofauna is relatively well preserved. The high number of Ciconia ciconia is impressive. As an example, in some small Strandzha villages (Voden and Malko Sharkovo) up to 10 pairs can be found. A very pleasing fact is that we have discovered nests of Aquila heliaca, which is among the "Threatened Birds in Europe." The region where the nests were found is a small one, covering the border forests on the south of "Malko Sharkovo" reservoir. Single nests of Aquila clanga and Haliaetus albicilla can be observed here. The region is inhabited by such rare European birds as Ciconia nigra, Neophron percnopterus, Aquila pommarina, A. chrysaetos, and Pernis apivorus. In the area of the "Malko Sharkovo" reservoir Elanus caeruleus, Falco vespertinus, and Pandion haliaetus, as well as a colony of Circus pygargus, have been discovered. On the shores of the reservoir nest Charadrius dubius, Vanellus vanellus, Burchinus oedicnemus, and possibly Arenaria interpres (5 individuals were observed). Intensive migrations of Ciconia ciconia, Pelecanus onocrotalus, Plegadis falcinellus, Cygnus cygnus, C. olor, Recurvirostra avosetta, Chlidonias nigra, and Chl. hybrida have been observed in the area of the "Malko Sharkovo" reservoir.

Among mammals, the steppe species occurring here (Cricetus migratorius, Myominus roachi bulgaricus, and Myotis emarginatus) are of great interest.

The Strandzha subregion differs from the others discussed up until now in its low human population density. The region is sparsely populated and the anthro=pogenic influence is very limited, especially in the border areas.

The significant threats in the region are: intensive logging; the use of inappropriate tree species in afforestation; road building in the heart of the region; inordinate grazing; extensive livestock breeding and raising (especially goats and half-wild pigs); and, most critically, plans for the development of tourism in the region and the expected construction of resorts.

All the preserved biotic communities of the subregion deserve strong protection. Of special interest are areas along the valley of the Veleka River, the border area above Malko Turnovo, the areas around Zvezdetz, Pania peak, and Bosna. Especially interesting are the northwestern slopes of the mountain, the forest slopes south of the "Malko Scharkovo" reservoir, and the small forested massif around Fakia. All of these regions should be mapped and given the status of protected areas. This method of preservation will, however, not solve the problem of providing protection for the biological communities on the mountain. The great value of this region as an important Balkan species-formation center and as a unique European location of ancient taxa and communities makes it necessary to organize yet stricter protection.

For these reasons, we propose that a 10-km border strip of land from the valley of the Tundzha River near the village of Lesovo up to the village of Dolno Iabalkovo, and the entire area encompassed by a line from Boliarovo to Grudovo to Primosko be declared an IUCN Category IV protected area. In the interior of this territory, all natural communities and locations of rare species should be mapped and a system of protected areas and reserves organized with a strict regime of protection (IUCN Catego-ries I, II, and III ).

B. Middle Bulgarian Biogeographic Region

This region covers the Gornotrakiiska plain with the sub-Balkan basins and Sirnena Sredna Gora hills (except its higher elevations); the Tundzha valley on the north, including the Kazanlak, Tvirdishko, and Slivensko plains; the eastern Stara Planina Mountains; and the Blagoevgrad, Kiustendil, and Dupniska basins. The climate is transitional-continental, with considerably more influence from the Mediterranean Sea in the southern part of the region.

Gornotrakiiska Plain subregion

The region extends from Momina klisura and the Ihtiman basin up to the Topolnitsa reservoir on the west. On the north it includes the Karlovo basin and the main part of Sirnena Sredna Gora. On the east, it includes the Blatnitsa and Sazliika valleys. And to the south it extends up to the border of the South Bulgarian region.

Lowland forest communities are found mainly along the river valleys, and are few in number. Somewhat more extensive forests are found in the foothills of the surrounding mountains - the Sredna Gora, Stara Planina, and Rhodope Mountains. They are composed of Quercus cerris, Q. frainetto, and in some places Q. pedunculiflora and Ulmus minor. Remnants of the former "longos" forests are found along the Maritsa River near Kritchim.

The Mediterranean climatic influence extends into the region along the Maritsa river and its tributaries, and reaches up into the sub-Balkan valleys and the valleys of the northern Rhodope rivers. This accounts for the presence of many Mediterranean plants and animals along the valleys of the rivers Tchepelarska (especially between Asenovgrad and Batchkovo) and Vatcha. Among the endemic plants in the subregion are: Merendera rhodopaea Vel., Minuartia rumelica P. Pan, Cerastium velonovskyi Hayer, Gipsophila tekirae Stef., Verbascum thracicum (Vel) Murb., Achillea thracica Vel., and Noccea rhodopensis F. K. Meyer.

The Bulgarian and Tertiary relict Hypericum setiferum occurs in this subregion. The Balkan endemics are represented here by Fritillaria stribrnyi Vel.

The considerably diminished area of natural vegetation and the widespread agricultural communities in this area account for the low density of resident fauna. The fauna consists of mixed European, transpalearctic, Mediterranean, and Iranian-Turanian elements. Endemic fauna include members of the Gastropoda, Myriapoda, Coleoptera, Hemiptera, and Diptera. Rutius rutilus is an endemic representative of the ichthyofauna. The herpetofauna has been greatly diminished by the intensive agriculture, dense transportation network, and lack of natural biotopes in the subregion. Even traditionally abundant species such as Bombina variegata, Hyla arborea, Bufo bufo, and B. viridis are found only infrequently. Populations of Testudo graeca and T. hermanii have been destroyed nearly completely. Emys orbicularis and Natrix natrix can be found in some fish-breeding ponds and clean water basins. Even Coluber jugularis is not found often here. In the foothills of the mountains surrounding the valley Coluber najadum, Coronella austriaca, and Vipera ammodytes can be found. Elaphe quatourlineata is extremely rare, and Eryx jaculus turcicus has nearly disappeared from the subregion.

The ornithofauna in the region is strongly affected by the lack of available habitats. Thus, preservation of the small oases with natural vegetation on islands in the Maritsa River islands and its tributaries is extremely important.

The data presented here are based on our long-term studies of the Plovdiv area and the Maritsa River valley. Many bird colonies settlements have formed in the subregion in the last fifteen years. They include colonies of:

Some birds that disappeared from the plain have begun to nest there again: Milvus migrans on the Maritsa islands near Parvomay (3 nests), Coracias garulos (a minimum of 15 nests in the area between Plovdiv and Simeonovgrad), Falco vespertinus (2 nests), and Dryocopus martius (2 nests). At the same time, other interesting habitats, such as that of the mixed colony of Ardeidae and Plegadis falcinellus in the Boliarino forest near the town of Rakovsky, no longer exist. Better preserved habitat exists in the foothills of the mountains that surround the plain. Rarely observed species there include Ciconia nigra (at the village of Bania and the Panitchery reservoir), Dryocopus martius, and Corvus corax. We observed Aguila heliaca and A. chrysaetos in the foothills of Sirnena Sredna Gora.

The subregion has high value as one of the most interesting wintering areas of rare and protected birds in Europe as a whole. It is the only known wintering ground of Ciconia nigra in the entire West Palaearctic, one of the two known wintering areas of Nycticorax nycticorax, and an important area as well for Egretta alba, Phalacrocorax carbo, and Haliaetor pygmaeus. Asio flammeus, Buteo buteo, Buteo lagopus, and Botaurus stellaris regularly spend the winter in the area. This is possible due to the combination of warm winter temperatures and the many open water channels and artificial reservoirs found in the vicinity of Plovdiv. The rare swimming birds Tadorna tadorna, Aythya ferina, Anas penelope, Anas acuta, also occur during migration. Small flocks of the rare Numenius arquata, Phalaropus fulicarius, Tringa nebularia, Tringa glareola, Tringa stagnatilis, Philomachus pugnax, and Himantopus himantopus can be seen regularly.

In general - and bearing in mind the strong anthropogenic influence - the richness of species in this subregion is very low. Much richer in species are the small, isolated habitats in the lowland woods and wetlands. Intensive agriculture is the most basic threat to biological diversity in the subregion. It affects species directly through the heavy application of chemicals. The dusting of crops from the air is extremely dangerous, especially near the lowland woods. Great damage is also caused by the burning of stubble, drainage of channels, repairing of dikes, and the development of quarries along the Maritsa River.

Individual trees, protected as century-old trees, remain from the lowland forest that existed several centuries ago. Secondary forests, 40-60 years old, are preserved in some areas of the plain. They are found in reserves and on the grounds of former residences. Such are the reserves found by the village of Striama ("Tcherkvitza"); along the Maritsa river; near the villages of Vinitza and Gradina near Brezovo; by Kritchim; and by the village of Boliarovo.

The close guarding of these areas up until 1990 protected the plants from cutting, and preserved the characteristic species diversity. In the last few years, as a result of land restitution and other factors, these regions have not been guarded and the first negative impacts have appeared - the colony of herons and the only habitat of Plegadis falcinellus in the Boliarino forest have disappeared. People from the surrounding villages have initiated uncontrolled large-scale felling of trees. In 1990 we suggested to the MOE that a moratorium on the use of resources within the former residences and reserves be declared until the state of the natural ecosystems and species diversity in these areas is fully investigated. Despite the issuing of an order, nothing has been done up until now and there exists the risk that these little islands of life in the plain will be totally destroyed.

The criteria for establishing protected areas in the plain must differ those developed elsewhere in the country. For example, the woods here (even if second-ary) must be protected - especially if they are inhabited by rare species - since only artificial plantations can be found for dozens of kilometers around. In addition, a number of these areas contain unique and rare plants that can exist only in this subregion and in this microclimate.

We have information that in just the last five years 20% of the forests in the plains have been destroyed. For example, the moist "longos" forest on the islands near Vinitsa and Gradina was destroyed and replaced by poplars. This affected the small heron colony, a nest of Milvus migrans, and locations of Leucojum aestivum. In 1986 a large heron colony on the island near Vinitsa was disturbed regularly by poaching and as a result the birds abandoned the island.

The most interesting communities in the subregion are the island biocenoses along the Maritsa River. In many respects they are unique in the interior of the country. The different ages of the islands allows us to study the stages of formation in the typical "longos" vegetation. Unfortunately, the islands are not owned outright and are subject to repulsive violations from local people (felling of the forests, the planting of melon fields, etc.).

For these reasons, we recommend that:

Tundzha Hilly Lowland Subregion

This subregion includes the area bordered by the eastern part of the Stara Planina Mountains on the north, the eastern border of the Gornotrakiisky subregion on the west, the Dolnomarishky-Dolnotundzhansky subregion on the south, and the Bourgas portion of the Black Sea region on the east. It includes the Tundzha hilly lowland, Kazanlak, Twirdishko, and Slivensko, the main (north) part of the Sakar hills, and Karnobatsko, Aitosko, Grudovsko, and Elhovsko. Nearly all of this territory is under cultivation - more than 80%. The forest communities are few. They are distributed along the river valleys, among the interior hills, or along the periphery of the area. They consist of Quercus cerris U., Q. frainetto, Carpinus orientalis, Paliurus spinachristi, and other Mediterranean species, along with Quercus pedunculiflora, Fraxinus oxycarpa, and others. Along the Tundzha the "longos" forests of Fraxinus, Ulmus, Populus, and Salix can be found.

The plants Tulipa splendes, T. aureolina, and Astra-cantha aitosensis are endemic to the subregion. The Bulgarian endemic Colchicus diampolis can be found only in this region and in the Gorna Strouma region. The Balkan endemics Verbascum purpureum (Janka/) Hub.-Morr. and Fritillaria stribrnyi Vel. are also found here.

Among the rare animal species that can still be found here are Testudo graeca and T. hermanii, Elaphe q. sauromates, and Lacerta strigata. The Sakar hills, Bakadzhitcite, and Manastirskite hills are rich in reptiles. In the northern part of Sakar, populations of Ophisaurus apodus and Malpolon monspessulanus survive.

The area of this subregion is vast and there are different numbers of species in its different parts. There are well preserved communities in Central Sakar, though the forests are secondary. Nest of Butteo rufinus, Haliaaetus albicilla, Corvus corax, Bubo bubo, Aquila heliaca, Accipiter gentilis, Caprimulgus europeus, Ciconia nigra, Hirundo daurica, and Circaetus gallicus (personal observation). There are nests of Hieraetus penatus and Tyto alba in the Manastirski hills. Clamator glandaris, Falco subbuteo, Falco columbarius, Circus pygargus, and Lanius senator can also be seen.

Of special interest from an ornithological perspective are the only country's best preserved "longos" forests, found in the Gorna and Dolna Toptchia reserves. Here, as late as 1979, there was a mixed colony of Ardeidae and Plegadis falcinellus. Egretta garzetta, Nycticorax nycticorax, Ardeola raloides, and Ardea purpurea nested here. Between 1987 and 1989 the colony's population declined significantly, and only about 30 nests of Egretta garzetta and Nycticorax nycticorax remained. Officials of the Regional Authority of the MOE report that the colony no longer exists.

In the "longos" of Gorna and Dolna Toptchia nest rare species of Passeriformes such as Aegithalos caudatus and Remiz pendulinus. The only surviving heron colony is that of Ardea cinerea near the town of Nikolaevo (15-20 pairs). Of importance in terms of their ornithofauna are the Ovtcharitsa reservoir and the nearby reservoirs of the Maritsa-East complex, where can be found Anser albifrons (about 6000), Anas platyrhynchos (10,000), Anas penelope (2000), Phalacrocorax carbo (800-1000), Haliaetor pygmeus (500), many Cygnus olor, Egretta alba, and others (personal observation).

An interesting phenomenon in the subregion is the penetration of the species Circus pygargus, in 5 breeding areas with 4 to 5 nests each, near the Ovtcharitsa reservoir. Up until 1986 there were no known nesting places in the country. The subregion is also the westernmost extent of the range of Phasianus c. colchicus.

The threats to biodiversity in the subregion are: the felling of trees in the Manastirski and Sakar hills; forest fires and the burning of field stubble; excessive grazing (in the Sakar region, for example, this is one of the greatest threats to the interesting vegetation of the mountains); disturbance of heron rookeries; the lack of awareness of the local population, (expressed in the destruction of bird's nests, the gathering of turtles for food, the killing of reptiles, etc.); and especially the intensive character of agriculture in the area.

The most significant areas requiring protection are:

C. North Bulgarian Biogeographical Region

This region covers the area north of the main chain of the Stara Planina Mountains, from the Black Sea region in the east to the higher plains (Sofiisko, Radomirsko, etc.) and the mountains surrounding them in the west. The region is characterized by a temperate continental climate. the Only Sofiisko-Radomirsky subregion will be discussed here.

Sofiisko-Radomirsky subregion

We will not present a detailed discussion of the characteristics of the subregion, but give only concrete proposals for new areas needing protection:

D. Bulgarian Black Sea Coast Biogeographical Region

This region covers a strip of land 10-15 km. wide along the Bulgarian Black Sea coast, and is heavily influenced by the Black Sea climate.

The region is very specific in its biotic characteristics. The vegetation consists mainly of psammophytes, halophytes, and coastal chasinophytes. There are limited forest formations of Q. cerris and Q. frainetto. "Longos" forests are found along the estuaries of the Batovska, Kamtchia, Ropotamo, and Rezovska Rivers.

Endemic plants here include Silene caliacre, Cardamine tuberosa, and Allium stojanovii. Many of the region's plants can be found nowhere else in the country. The Bulgarian endemic Pyrus bulgarica and the Balkan endemic Verbascum purpureum occur widely in the region.

Many of the widespread plant and animal species in the region are relictual, representative of the flora and fauna of the former Pontic-Caspian basin. Many Asian species and many endemics from Arthropoda and Gastropoda are found in the region.

Among the rare animals of special interest are the reptiles. Coluber r. rubriceps can be found only in this area. Distributed along the southern Black Sea coast are Ophisaurus apodus, Elaphe situla, Malpolon monspessulanus, and Typhlops vermicularis. There are populations of Mauremys caspica in the suitable biotopes around Ahtopol and the Veleka and Rezovska Rivers.

The ornithofauna of the region is very specific. Most characteristic are the herons, cormorants, and wading birds. The region's natural habitats have been strongly influenced by human activities. The nesting areas of Phalacrocorax have almost vanished as compared to their distribution in previous centuries. Nesting Laridae, Sternidae, and Charadridae can be seen on some islands and rocks on the coast. Especially rich in birds are the sea lakes - Durankulashko, Shablensko, Atanasovsko, the Bourgas lakes, and others. They provide resting and wintering grounds for more than 260 species of birds.

Some wetlands of the Black Sea coast are situated along the eastern migration path that connects West Palearctica with Africa. Of special interest are the wetlands near Bourgas. They are used as a feeding base by thousands of migrating birds. Enormous concentrations of birds form here, among which are rare species protected by international conventions and included in the "Threatened Birds in Europe" and the World Red Data Book - including Pelecanus onocrotalus, P. crispus, Egretta alba, Platalea leucorodia, Plegadis falcinellus, Ciconia ciconia, C. nigra, Phoenicopterus ruber, Branta ruficollis, Haliaeetus albicilla, Aquila heliaca, and A. chrysaetus.

Rare Charadriiformes, such as Charadrius alexandrinus, Tringa stagnatilis, Himantopus himantopus, Recurvirostra avoseta, Glareola pratincola, Larus melanocephalus, Sterna hirundo, Chlidonias hibrida, Gelochelidon nilotica, and Thalassus sandvicensis nest in the region. The coastal lakes are inhabited by rare fish species: Knipowitschia caucasica, Gasteroste aculeatus, Pinigitilus platigaster, Neogobius syrman, and others. Interesting mammals in the region are Microtus guentheri and Monachus monachus. The latter is considered extinct. We propose that caves that are found to be inhabited by seals be immediately declared marine reserves, along with the adjacent sea surface (to 5 km from shore).

The region is characterized by its rich flora and fauna. In addition to the coastal wetlands along the northern Bulgarian Black Sea coast, there are unique plant and animal communities on the Kaliakra, Baltchik, Emina, and other rock capes. The dunes of the southern Bulgarian Black Sea coast also have a unique biota. Many insect species new to science have been found on specific dune plants.

The equilibrium of these unique communities has been strongly disturbed by negative factors that are characteristic of the region: resort construction and tourism, and associated road and industrial construction; industrial, petroleum, and chemical pollution of the sea coast; and pollution due to influx of wastes from the towns and villages along the sea coast.

General problems that have affected the biological diversity of the sea coast lakes include: destruction of the channels that connect the lakes and the sea (this is the cause behind the pauperization and changes in species composition of the ichthyofauna); contamination of the waters with strong effluents (as in the case of Mandra and Vaia Lakes); the proximity of livestock-breeding farms (which are dangerous not only because they contaminate the water, but because the animals if left by themselves will destroy the nests of rare birds); repairs to dikes during the reproductive period of rare birds (this also directly destroys natural habitats); and the burning and mowing of reeds and other wetland vegetation.

The following measures are recommended for the region.

E. Bulgarian High Mountain Biogeographical Region

This region covers the mountainous parts of the country above 1000 m a. s. l. It is characterized by a montane temperate and transient continental climate. This is the only region where glacial relicts of northern and mountainous origin, with arctic-alpine, boreal-montane, and montane areas can be found.

Territories in the different high mountain areas that require protection are described below.

Central and South Pirin Mountains

Subalpine and alpine parts of the following peaks: Oreliak, Tchala, Baba, Pilentzeto, Sweshtnik, Liaskovsky, Sw, Elena, and Suhi vrah. All of these consist of limestone rocks and are important species-formation centers, where 55 species of rare and protected higher plants can be found. Two local endemics are found in the floral complex of the Central and South Pirin Mountains: Festuca pirinensis Acht. and Arenaria pirinica Stoj. Eleven Bulgarian endemics can also be found here: Festuca vallida (Uechtr.) Penzes, Bromus lacmonicus Hausskn., Tulipa pirinica Delip., Silene velenovskyana D. Jord. et P. Pan., Erysimum drenovskyi Deg., Sedum kostovii Stef., Veronica spicata L. subsp. austrobulgarica (Deg. et Dren.) D. Peev, Jasionella bulgarica Stoj. et Stef., Chondrilla urumovii Deg., Asyneuma kellerianum Stef., Pulsatilla slavjankae (Zimm.) D. Jord. et Koz.

Balkan endemics number 96 species, or 36.2% of the total of 249 Balkan endemics for the country (Kojuharov, 1977). Out of a total of 143 species of rare and endangered plants in the Pirin Mountains, these areas are known to contain 50 species (34.8%). Twenty-nine plants are protected by law. There are well preserved natural coniferous forests and forests of Fagus silvatica in the area. This is an important nesting area for Lanius nubicus, Sylvia hortenzis, S. cantillans, Monticola solitarius, Sitta neumayer, and other species rarely found in Bulgaria.

For these reasons, we propose that the following conservation measures be taken:

1) The largest part of the discussed territory should be protected within an IUCN Category IV (or at least Category V) protected area, and that it be united with the Pirin National Park.

2) The following should also be declared protected areas.

3) Large parts of Ograzhden, Malashevska, and Vlahina Mountains, including territories from the Strumsko-Mestensky subregion, should be protected in IUCN Category V protected areas. These are the only parts of the country known to support populations of Erodium absinthoides, Viola gracilis, and Viola stojanovii. Many endemics among the Coleoptera and Orthoptera are also found here. Aquila pommarina, Hieraetus pennatus, Accipiter brevipes, and Bubo bubo, among others, nest in the area. We have information that the valleys of the Ribnishka and Lednishka rivers have well preserved formations of Platanus orientalis as well as healthy populations of Testudo graeca and Testudo hermanii. Ciconia nigra, Accipiter brevipes, A. gentillis, Circaetus gallicus, Bubo bubo, Buteo buteo, and Pernis apivorus nest in the region, and because of this the valleys of the rivers should be protected within IUCN Category III protected areas.

4) We propose that Zemenska and a portion of the Koniavska Mountains be given protection under IUCN Category V, and that the Zemensky gorge be protected under IUCN Category III. Interesting plants found at these sites include Allium cupanii Rafin, Lilium jankae Kern., Fritillaria orientalis Adams, Lathyrus grandiflorus Sibth et Sm., T. urumovii Hayek., Ferula heufellii Griseb, Aubrieta intermedia Heldr et Orph eh Boiss, Sedum aetense Tineo, Stachys serdica Panc., Campanula versicolor Andrews, and Edraianthus serbicus (Kern.) Petr. Aquila chrysaetos, Bubo bubo, and Buteo rufinus breed here as well.

3. Major Threats to Biodiversity

The topic of threats to biodiversity is quite broad, and so we will discuss here only those that are specific to our country and are actual problems at this moment. We believe that privatization of the forests and agricultural lands will have the greatest consequences. The problem with the private forestlands will be especially acute, since it will be difficult to secure effective protection for these areas, and the owners will in many cases go after quick profits. New legal measures to safeguard the forests probably will not have much immediate effect, because implementation of the new system of management will necessarily take several years. The cutting will become uncontrolled and will fundamentally influence the biodiversity in these regions.

The situation with the municipal forests is the same. Even now, they are being cut down in some places without any coordination among the relevant government institutions. The changing status of lands and forests liable for restitution but included in protected areas will lead to acute conflicts, especially in cases where the owners cannot be compensated with other lands from the forest fund. Such is the case in one of our biosphere reserves - "Tchervenata stena" near Batchkovo in the Plovdiv region. As a result of the last expansion of the reserve, private cultivated lands were included within its boundaries. The owners cannot be compensated with other cultivated lands because there are none in the village.

Even more acute will be the problems involving the private forests within the reserves, because they potentially constitute a large percentage of the protected territories. It is unclear who will maintain the protected areas after privatization takes place - the owners, the municipal authorities, or the Ministry of Environment. Especially difficult will be the problem of century-old trees that exist on private cultivated lands. For example, in the village of Bania (Pazardzhik region), an owner burned a thousand-year-old oak even before his land was returned to him!

For years to come, privatization of the forests and agricultural lands will be the fundamental threat to biodiversity in certain regions. Even industrial activities will not have so extensive an influence on the natural equilibrium. The planning of new industrial areas and the building of dams, roads, and structures will involve evaluation of their impacts on the environment and agreements with the concerned ministry. However, the process of privatization cannot be stopped, and the fact that it will be carried out on such a large scale makes any control over its impacts impossible. The only way to secure control over the protected areas is to organize an independent institution that is simultaneously responsible for the study, management, and protection of the areas.

Another factor that poses a threat even in regions where the natural environment is well preserved is tourism activities. Although this branch of the economy is at the moment in crisis, it will recover quickly after privatization takes place. Private initiative will penetrate areas that are still free from this kind of activity. A certain answer to the problem has been development of so-called ecotourism. It must be obligatory for ecotourism to be undertaken with very strict safeguards so that it will not destroy natural areas. It cannot be based upon first receiving financial benefits and then thinking about the protection of natural areas.

Although temporally stalled because of the country's serious economic crisis, large development activities, especially construction activities - highways, railways, industrial and resort complexes - still pose a danger to biodiversity. The Green Balkans Movement will oppose the building of the "Gorna Arda" dam project, which will destroy the few well preserved plant communities in that region, among which there are some endemic species. The region is famous as a nesting location for rare and threatened birds of prey.

The volunteers from the Green Balkans society in Bourgas will monitor the development of petroleum production concessions, which unfortunately are situated near relatively well preserved marine ecosystems and species-rich areas along the sea coast. The open pit mines and complexes of the Thermo Electric Station "Maritsa-Iztok" converted vast land areas into a moon-like landscape. We will insist that the government recalculate the costs of this project and that it create green oases around the artificial reservoirs.

A real threat is the doubling of the railway line from Blagoevgrad to Kulata. It will cross protected areas and destroy unique landscapes.

We will insist that precise ecological investigations be carried out and projects for the restoration of biodiversity implemented.

The application of chemicals in agriculture is a great threat to biodiversity. The use of pesticides and rodenticides and improper manuring destroys links in the food chains, and causes eutrophication of the interior aquifers and of the Black Sea.

In the winter of 1988-89 one of the most profound crimes against nature was carried out. Enormous quantities of chlorine and phosphorous organic rodenticides were spread over large expanses of cultivated land. Forbidden in Western Europe, these preparations were purchased and then spread from the air, which is an absolutely inexcusable use of such poisons. As a result, nearly all the birds of prey in treated areas - many of which are protected by international conventions and spend the winter in our plains - were killed. Using a variety of methods, the Green Balkans Movement was able to perform a comparative study to evaluate the damage caused by this action. The results showed that in the vicinity of Plovdiv more than 100,000 birds met their death - rooks (Corvus frugilegus), black storks (Ciconia nigra), herons (Ardeidae), geese (Anserinae), and others. We would like to note that at the moment the wolf population is being regulated by the same methods. The local forestry officials are given poisons, baits are set, and many birds of prey and rare mammals suffer along with the wolves. And all this is being done after Bulgaria has signed the Berne convention.

The inappropriate organization of hunting and the hunters' archaic approach to nature is one of the factors behind the current disturbances in the equilibrium of the ecosystems, especially because of the selective slaughtering of some species at the expense of others. Thus, biodiversity is directly affected and the natural self-sustaining capacity of the biocenosis is diminished. The current hunting season for waterfowl was extended to the end of February by the self-willed decision of the Committee of Forests. We consider this to be a violation of the Ramsar and Berne Conventions, since this time of the year is the beginning of their reproductive period.

The problems discussed up until now are only a few of the factors responsible for the decreases in biodiversity in the country. These problems, as well as all the others, are mainly a result of the lack of a nature protection culture among our people.

4. Disadvantages in the Current System of Management of the Protected Areas

The value of any protected area depends mainly on the unique features of the biocenoses within it, and in some case on its inanimate natural features. The effective protection of such areas depends greatly on sound knowledge about the biodiversity within them, and appropriate management measures to maintain this biodiversity.

Control over the status of Bulgaria's protected areas and the activities connected with their preservation is quite perfunctory at the present moment. The commission of violations and the preconditions of their perpetration (e.g., lack of licenses, burning, cutting, hunting, and so forth) are reported, but the main responsibility - observing the status of populations of rare or threatened species - is neglected, even though it is the thing that determines the effectiveness of the protected areas.

Who manages and controls the protected natural areas?

Directly responsible at the present moment are the owners: the state forestry departments and the councils. The officials appointed by them exercise control over the protected areas. The people occupying these posts usually do not have the knowledge necessary to carry out systematic observations of the populations of rare and protected species, and they do not do so in any case. This means that protection activities are ineffective from the very start, while the connection between research and preservation is lost.

The next weak links in the nature protection chain are the Regional Authorities in the Ministry of Environment (RAME). The quality of work on protected and rare plants and animals improved with the involvement of biologists in the RAME system. But despite this improvement, the work of the chief specialists is mainly to manage, and this does not allow them the opportunity to study in greater depth and detail the populations of biologically important species. Moreover, they are responsible for so many regions and objects that do not have the time to do so.

All of this makes it clear that the failures connected with the preservation of biodiversity and the administration of protected areas are due first of all to incorrectly designed administrative structures, and to the confrontation between the contradictory interests of the Committee of Forests as an owner and the Ministry of Environment as the governmental institution responsible for the preservation of biodiversity.

If we analyze the activities related to the preservation of biodiversity on all levels of management - from the forester to the Chairman of the Committee of Forests, and from the inspector in RAME to the Minister of the Environment - we shall ascertain that coordination is totally lacking as a result of different interests and perspectives. This conclusion is not overstated.

In how many of our reserves are complex floristic and faunistic studies being carried out - not to mention basic biological research for conservation?

How many of the reserves have personnel who are looking after biodiversity?

What is being done with regard to the unique endemic species in our flora? How many of the locations are really protected?

How many attempts are being made to reintroduce some of the thirty extinct higher plants?

This list of questions can be lengthened, but there will not be a single positive answer to any of them. The conclusions are clear to those who are interested in the problems of nature and nature protection. They are (1) radical changes are needed in the biodiversity protection system, and (2) the personnel working on these problems need to be replaced.

The Green Balkans Movement believes that there are enough young specialists with proper backgrounds in this field who are keen on working for the study and preservation of our unique flora and fauna. However, these people for one reason or another have not been involved in the MOE system or in the scientific groups dealing with these problems.

As a further recommendation we must add that a change in the basic personnel policy of the MOE and in the attitude of the government toward the problems of nature protection is necessary.

5. Institutional Changes Required to Strengthen Biodiversity Protection

Legislative Changes

The legislative and normative bases for the preservation and management of the protected areas are hopelessly old-fashioned and cannot fulfill their basic objectives. We are not going to comment upon the many legal disadvantages involved in protecting biodiversity (as, for example, the contradictions between the international obligations of Bulgaria under the Ramsar, Bern, and Washington conventions and the current national legislation). These contradictions and disadvantages in the legislative base can be eliminated only by immediate passage of the newly prepared laws concerning biodiversity: the laws on protected areas, biodiversity, land restitution, and game animals.

Unfortunately, the Bulgarian Parliament does not regard the passing of these laws as a priority and they are unlikely to be adopted in the coming year. For this reason, we recommend that the government pass urgent decrees to activate the signed international conventions. We will send to the government a written statement articulating our recommendations and providing concrete examples of the breaking of the convention agreements. If no measures are adopted, we will look to international organizations for support.

Proposed legal measures must be coordinated among those who are proposing them. Priority must be given to the protection of biodiversity itself, and all departmental and political interests must be put aside in this effort.

Budgetary Changes

Up until now, minimal funds have been invested in nature protection and management. The money for research work in the reserves, for protection of rare species, for creating genetic banks, and for studying the populations and their dynamics have been insufficient.

The MOE and the nongovernmental organizations must urge the government to find new ways to finance projects concerning the preservation of natural ecosystems and biodiversity. Bearing in mind the serious economic crisis we are in, the government must ask for assistance from international financial institutions. Some of the financial problems involved in the preservation of protected areas, landscapes, unique genetic resources can be solved by the government using the "debt-for-nature" principle.

Other new ways to finance nature protection activities must be found. For example, private companies can help sponsor this work. Unfortunately, this is nearly impossible at present because our tax laws do not provide any tax preferences for contributors. It is not enough simply to recognize that money invested in ecological projects and programs are worthy expenses; extra preferences are necessary. Encouragement of companies that invest in nature protection activities would alleviate the national budget of such expenses. For example, non-governmental organizations might then have an opportunity to receive funds from private companies, which is now almost impossible.

Although the funds in the budget of the MOE devoted to the protection of biodiversity are not great, even these are improperly distributed. There is no competition to conduct ecological projects and no provision for the proper spending of money. Projects are always assigned to the same people, without engaging a wider circle of specialists.

We insist that all projects and activities planned by the MOE be fully opened not only conceptually, but financially. Competitions must be organized to allow independent experts from nongovernmental ecological organizations to participate. The quality of ecological activities will improve as a result of competition. The MOE must not forget that there are nongovernmental ecological organizations in the country that have the necessary specialists and that can take part in the fulfillment of various scientific and nature protection projects. These organizations are organized on a volunteer basis, and thus can operate with fewer expenses.

Structural Changes

In the last section we described the many problems associated with the existing state institutions responsible for nature protection. The conclusions in that section show that a radical change in the system and its structures is necessary, and that a new personnel policy is also needed. This will contribute to the preservation of biodiversity and of the integrity of the ecosystems for future generations.

Here we express our opinion with regard to the structure and function of the nature protection system, and (to be more precise) the network of protected areas and the management of protected species. This must be a state structure that combines (1) research on population dynamics and the influence of different environmental factors, (2) studies of the problems of restoration and maintenance of protected areas and (3) the security and safeguarding of protected areas. This institution must be entirely independent of the MOE. It will be better if it is an independent committee for the preservation of the protected territories and biodiversity, with its own budget and development programs. It is not necessary that the chairman of this committee be a member of the Council of Ministers. He may be represented there by the Minister of the Environment.

The structure of the committee must be built upon a biogeographical and not administrative basis, as is the case with the MOE system. For example, the biogeographical division of the country into five regions (Gruev, 1988) can be used: the South Bulgarian, Central Bulgarian, North Bulgarian, Bulgarian Black Seaside, and Bulgarian High Mountain Regions. This division is based on the similarities in climatic, orographic, and anthropogenic factors, and on the specific features of the biota. In the Black Sea region, for example, the similarity in the biotic communities will improve the quality of the research work and of the programs for restoration of the protected areas. The similarity of the anthropogenic factors - resort construction and the contamination of the marine ecosystems - will make it easier to realize an effective protection program.

The advantages of this approach are apparent in other regions as well. For example, in the High Mountain region's forest and alpine ecosystems, the predominant negative factors are logging and the construction activities associated with ski resorts. The Central Bulgarian region (Gornotrakiiska and Tundzha sub-regions) is strongly influenced by intensive agriculture and the natural biota, present in small, scattered territories, are preserved only in valuable plain and moist forests. A regional management body of the proposed committee, including 2-3 experts, must be present in every region. These experts and a technical team of 1 or 2 persons will carry out the research work. They will manage the groups guarding the reserves, the protected areas, and the public parks, and will study the dynamics of the populations in their region.

This structure can successfully meet its responsibilities with a small staff if the help of the nongovernmental ecological organizations is incorporated. As an additional benefit, this would have a strong educational effect. All the occasional activities, such as the marking of protected areas, fee collection, and other services, can be done with the help of volunteers.

6. Opportunities for Integrated Conservation and Development

In our opinion, it is still too early to talk about integrating the conservation of biodiversity with the derivation of direct benefits from biodiversity. We hold this opinion because an effective system for preserving protected areas and biological diversity has not yet been still constructed. However, we will emphasize some opportunities for integrative activities that can be initiated right now.

One of these is the development of specialized educational tourism (ecotourism). To ensure that ecotourism works properly, routes in the protected areas must be strictly controlled and groups must be accompanied by a guide who will oversee the behavior of the visitors. The companies who would like to develop ecotourism must fulfill some requirements and prove that they have an appropriate attitude toward the protected areas and their geno-fund, and show that they understand how to preserve them.

In the vast agricultural lowlands and plain regions of the country (Gornotrakiiska nizina, the Dunavska valley, the Tundzha region, and so forth) the natural communities are almost fully destroyed or, if not, they are fragmented and isolated. These are the reasons that the biodiversity in these areas is very unstable. They are unable to retain their characteristic faunistic and floristic elements. It is not possible to rebuild the representative biocenotic complexes in a manner that will preserve the genofund and maintain equilibrium. A compromise must thus be reached, and this may present opportunities for integration.

For example, the Thracian plain is densely cut through with channels, microdams, and fish-breeding farms. Around these places, and on the river banks of the Maritsa and its tributaries, there are naturally formed wetland communities that provide habitat for many nesting birds and birds of prey. The value of these areas is very high. For example, a survey in Plovdivskoto of 700 km2 of these biotopes found 250-260 species. Here can be found the winter camps of Ciconia nigra, Asio flammeus, Egretta alba, Ardea cinerea, Botaurus stellaris, Cygnus olor, Buteo lagopus, B. buteo, and many others included in the Red Data Book of People's Republic of Bulgaria and the "Threatened birds of Europe." It is possible, without any damage to agriculture, to preserve these territories in an appropriate way. The integration of protection and use can be accomplished. With a minimal amount of money, it is possible to create along the channels (i.e., in places not used by agriculture) plantations of broadleaved trees and bushes that will help to increase biodiversity.

Of great interest for integrated conservation are the fish-breeding farms, with both intensive and semi-intensive fish-breeding facilities. These farms can be found in nearly all the vast plain regions of the country. They offer possibilities for combining fish-breeding with the preservation of the genofund of rare breeding and migrating birds, threatened fish, and rare wetland plants. The diversity of species is not threatened during the winter and summer months, since there are no meliorative activities and fishing during these periods.

Our observations and studies by other specialists show that riverside plantations of cattail, reeds, and other vegetation that are traditionally destroyed by fishermen do not affect fishing. Even a strip 3-8 meters wide will have no effect, because it creates conditions for increasing zooplankton and decreasing the feeding coefficient. The riverside plants are an extra food source for some fish species. The only necessary condition is to keep low the number of fish-eating birds. These bases can also be used to reintroduce threatened and disappearing plants. For instance, the fish-breeding farm by the village of Trud is inhabited by more than 200 species of birds and is the only wintering area of Ciconia nigra. The Green Balkans Movement has proposed using this farm as a gene bank and for the reproduction of ten species of rare and threatened wild medicinal plants. The purpose is, first, to both reintroduce them in their former locations and create new locations and, second, to support the production of necessary raw materials for the pharmaceutic industry.

Another possibility is to cultivate striking rare bush and tree species that occur in single locations in the country. These must first be introduced in specialized gardens and nurseries.

7. Results of a Survey of Attitudes Toward Nature Protection

The Green Balkans Movement agreed to carry out a survey of attitudes toward the protected areas and biodiversity among the population in the vicinity of Pirin Nation Park. The questions were developed by a consultant to the NBDCS organizers, and the survey was carried out by members of the Movement. One hundred people from the towns of Blagoevgrad and Bansko and the village of Dobrinishte were questioned.

The survey was carried out using a quota method: 26% of those questioned were citizens somehow engaged in activities connected to the preservation of nature (e.g., tourists, mountaineers, hunters, herbalists, mushroom-gatherers); 16% were administrators (representatives of the local authorities, local officials of the MOE, the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the Committee of Forests, and so forth); and 58% were randomly selected from the local population.

The purpose of the survey was explained to all of those questioned. Nearly all of them expressed interest in the survey. It must be noted that, despite the special attention devoted to explaining how to fill in the form, many of the people questioned could not understand some of the questions. We think that this is important, because it is reflected in the answers. Some of the questions were answered with certain stipulations, while other were not answered at all. This made it more difficult to compare results and diminished the effect of the survey.

We think that the survey should have included more simple and concrete questions. This would have allowed people to answer more easily and to express more clearly their attitude towards nature protection. The fact that the region of Blagoevgrad, Bansko, and Dobrinishte is situated in the foothills of Rila and Pirin and is relatively free of large-scale pollution must be considered in interpreting the answers correctly. In addition, this area has no vast expanses of cultivated land, and the agriculture there is semi-intensive.

Many of the questions (1-8) aim to establish the level of ecological awareness among the people and the degree of their engagement with nature protection ideas. It seemed that the level of knowledge is comparatively high. For example, protected areas and other reserves were differentiated; 93% of those surveyed knew of the existence of protected areas in their region. This is supported by the high percentage of the people (54%) visiting these areas. It is striking that most of the professionally "engaged" people (69%) and the local authorities (81%) were in this group.

Notwithstanding the high percentage of visits, those surveyed had little idea of the degree to which protected areas draw tourists.

Few of those surveyed (6%) experienced a strict management regime in the protected areas, but we cannot accept this as precise since "reserve" and "national park" were united in the same question. People connect these places more with recreation and tourism than with the preservation of rare species of plants and animals. This is confirmed by the answers to the question concerning the purposes of their visits. The largest percentage is connected with the observation of nature (34%). The high percentage of visits connected with hunting is troublesome (32%).

The lack of indepth understanding of the state of nature in the protected areas is illustrated in the answers to the questions about what people liked and disliked during their visits. Out of a possible 400 answers, the first question was answered by 217 people, the second by 123. The answers indicate that the most important attraction is the general state of nature - the clean air and water (136 out of 217 answers to Question 7) and after that the animals and plants (49 out of 217 answers). The strongest negative impressions were of contamination, tree cutting, and the disposal of wastes, but activities such as poaching, grazing, the breaking of statutes, the gathering of plants, and hunting left no impression on the people. This can be explained by the great desire of people to manage nature and to use its resources.

As a general conclusion we can say that the people in this region have a high level of ecological awareness and knowledge about the existence of protected territories. The troublesome point is that they think of these places in terms of rest and tourism rather than the preservation of rare plant and animal species. This is a potential danger for biodiversity in the protected areas. The desire to use natural resources is greater than the desire to preserve them.

The answers to Questions 9, 10, and 13 express the attitudes of those surveyed on problems connected with the privatization of agriculture and industry and its effects on wild animals and plants in the region. While most expressed concern about the negative influence of this process on the richness of the plant and animal world, the percentage of those who thought that privatization will result in the reasonable use of nature was almost the same.

Unfortunately, the percentage of those surveyed who think that activities such as cattle-raising and cultivation of land can be a danger for biodiversity was low. The difference in answering the two questions, as well as the high percentage of those who did not answer them (about 50%), show a lack of interest in these problems. If a conflict should occur, and the interests of the local people confront the aims of reserve protection activities, we cannot expect active support for nature protection.

According to those surveyed, construction activities can present a danger for wild plants and animals, but smaller enterprises are not regarded as so dangerous (only 26% believed that this would pose some danger). The percentage of the people who did not answer or were not sure is high (50%). The is the same distribution seen in the answers to the question concerning the restitution of private property. Here we must note that the survey did not address such important issues as the return of private forest-lands or attitudes toward hunting as a sport activity or as a danger for wild animals.

Questions 12, 13, and 14 concern the development of ecotourism. Nearly all people think that in their region such activities can be developed (96%). They think that this kind of activity can stimulate the preservation of wild nature, provide new job opportunities, raise incomes, and improve the level of ecological education and awareness. Those surveyed who think that ecotourism does not pose a threat to wild nature are twice as numerous as those of the opposite opinion. These results prove that the preconditions exist for developing ecotourism in the region of Blagoevgrad, Bansko, and Dobrinishte. This is a reflection of the local experience with tourist activities. In the answers to Question 16 (38 of 70 answers), the development of tourism is treated as a way of gaining extra income. It can be generalized that the local population sees tourism as a way to develop the local economy without connecting it with specific features and potentially negative results.

The answers of those surveyed with regard to changes in the structure of the state authorities and laws show that the activities in this sphere are inadequate - the finances are insufficient (98%), the state structures have not changed (94%), and the laws have not changed (74%). The explicit nature of the answers shows that even people who are not well acquainted with these problems understand that the state institutions have been inactive in this area.

Nearly half of those surveyed (44 out of 100 possible answers on question 17) identified concrete objects that require protection. Predominant among these were the Pirin Mountains generally.

Analysis of the survey answers indicates that the state officials and the people who are directly engaged in nature protection are more aware of the problems than the randomly chosen people. This result was expected due to the differences in the activities of the different groups, and illustrates the need for more careful work with the local population with regard to biodiversity and the activities in the reserves.

Summary

1. Trends in the Populations of Threatened Taxa

This section reviews the dynamics of populations of species and groups of species that have not been well studied in Bulgaria, with priority placed on presenting new, as yet unpublished information. Taxa belonging to better studied groups are not discussed in this chapter due to space limitations (new information on the status of populations of rare bird species is presented in section II).

Plants

The status of 46 poorly studied and threatened species - among which are 16 Bulgarian endemics and 3 newly discovered species for this country - is discussed. The species are placed into three groups (annual and biennial grasses, perennial grasses, and tree and shrub species) in order to make it easier to discuss the limiting factors and measures needed for protection. It is recommended that 13 plant species in the category "rare" be included in the category "threatened." It is further recommended that efforts be undertaken to organize the safeguarding of the locations and communities of 32 species of plants, and to create appropriate protected areas for their preservation. The problems of the botanic gardens in Bulgaria are discussed and recommendations for organizing new gardens are presented.

Amphibians and Reptiles

Fourteen rare and threatened species are discussed. Eight of them can be found only in Bulgaria among all the European countries. The limiting factors are discussed, placing emphasis on the illegal trade in rare reptiles and amphibians. For the first time in this country, the reasons behind our poor knowledge of this group are discussed. Some of these reasons are: the lack of interest within the state and scientific institutions; the lack of specialized group devoted to the study and protection of these organisms; the lack of the necessary popular and scientific literature in Bulgarian. Concrete legislative and institutional changes that will guarantee the preservation of Bulgaria's unique herpetofauna are recommended.

Bats

The most poorly studied vertebrates in the country. Twenty-nine species can be found in Bulgaria, out of a total of 30 that occur in all of Europe. The status and limiting factors for 26 of them are discussed. Recommendations concerning the organization of protection efforts as well as the necessary legislative and institutional changes are given.

2. The Biogeographic Regions of Bulgaria and Recom-mendations for Areas Requiring Additional Protection

Section 2 is the main part of the report. Using the biogeographical division of the country according to Gruev (1988), the characteristics of the biodiversity in each biogeographical region are presented. The following format is used:

Following this format, 9 biogeographic subregions (out of a total of 20 in the country) are discussed, covering the territory of South Bulgaria and the Bulgarian Black Sea. Fifty-four recommendations are given for the establishment or expansion of protected areas. For the sake of brevity and comparison, we use the IUCN Categories I-VI to classify the proposed protected areas.

A. Southern Bulgarian Biogeographic Region

Strumsko-Mestensky subregion

Eastern Rhodope subregion

The entire territory of the southern watershed of the Arda River, and especially the border area, should be afforded an appropriate level of protection, from Category V-VI. All natural communities and locations should be given the status of protected nature areas. Especially interesting are the habitats of Bunium ferulaceum and Tulipa rhodopaea, the nesting areas of Gyps fulvus and Ciconia nigra, and the colony of Ardea cinerea.

Dolnomarishko-Dolnotundjansky subregion

The border regions in the southern part of Sakar and in the Derventski hills should be protected in a Category V-VI protected area. The interesting grass communities and habitats of Falco naummani, Aquila heliaca, and Melanocorhipha yeltoniensis should be declared protected areas. In addition:

Strandzha subregion

The high value of this region as a species formation center and as a unique European refugia of century-old species and communities demands very strict protection. The whole territory within an area defined by the southern border of the country and the line between the villages of Lesovo, Dolno Iabalkovo, Boliarovo, and the towns of Grudovo and Primorsko should be protected as Category I, II, and III protected areas. A system of Category I, II, and II reserves and protected areas should be organized and strictly enforced in the interior of the country.

B. Middle Bulgarian Biogeographical Region

Gornotrakiiska Plain subregion

Recommendations:

Tundzha Hilly lowland subregion

C. Northern Bulgarian Biogeographical Region

Only the Sofiisko-Radomirsky subregion is discussed.

Recommendations:

D. Bulgarian Black Sea Biogeographical Region

The problems of protecting the seaside lakes are discussed in detail. The most significant recommendations are:

E. Bulgarian High Mountain Biogeographical Region

Major recommendations:

3. Major Threats to Biodiversity

Problems at the national scale are discussed here, in contrast to section 2 (where threats and limiting factors are discussed at the regional scale). Concern has been expressed that the forthcoming privatization of cultivated lands and forests will result in conflicts between the local populations and biodiversity protection. Because of the low level of ecologic awareness, biodiversity will be threatened.

4. Disadvantages in the Current System of Management of the Protected Areas

In this section, problems involving the current management of protected natural territories are discus-sed. Some more significant of them are: inappropriate administrative structures; confrontations between the different interests of the Committee of Forests and the Ministry of Environment; the lack of systematic scientific studies of biodiversity; the improper personnel policy of the MOE; and the lack of biologists employed in the administrative structures. Recommendations are offered for improving the system of management and for involving nongovernmental ecological organizations.

5. Institutional Changes Required to Strengthen Biodiversity Protection

There are apprehensions that the discussion and passage of laws relating to the preservation of biological resources will take a long period of time. In connection with proposed budget changes, it is recommended that new funding strategies be explored. These may include financing from international institutions (for example, through "debt-for-nature" agreements) and private sponsorship of nongovernmental ecological organizations. It is further proposed that a new independent institution be created: a Committee within the Council of Ministries, with its own budget, that will guard the protected areas, develop management plans, and undertake research on the restoration of these areas. The concept of creating local units of this Committee on a biogeographical basis is described.

6. Opportunities for Integrated Conservation and Development

Several ideas are discussed in this section: ecotourism and conditions for its safe development; integrated use and protection of fish-breeding farms in the Thracian plain, etc.

7. Results of a Survey of Attitudes Toward Nature Protection

In this section, the results of a sociological survey among the population of the towns of Blagoevgrad and Bansko and the village of Dobrinishte are presented and interpreted. The survey was carried out using the quota method that is described in the text. The survey included questions concerning the ecological awareness of the people, the state of the environment in the region, the attitudes of the local people toward the protected areas and toward wild plants and animals, the potential impact of land restitution on biodiversity, and the potential for reasonable use of biological resources.

Acknowledgements

The council of representatives of the Green Balkans Associations from Plovdiv, Sofia, Stara Zagora, and Bourgas thank the organizers for the trust shown with respect to their organizations, and for providing the opportunity for the Green Balkans associations to contribute to the development of the Bulgarian National Biological Diversity Conservation Strategy (NBDCS). The NBDCS project provides hope for future generations, and its realization will help to guarantee the protection of our unique flora and fauna.

Green Balkans Association, Council of Representatives. 28 February 1993.

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