Insects of Bulgaria, Part 2: Blattodea, Mantodea, Isoptera, Orthoptera, Dermaptera, Embioptera, Megaloptera, Raphidioptera, Neuroptera, Mecoptera, Hymenoptera, Trichoptera, Lepidoptera, and Diptera

Zdravko Hubenov, Venelin Beschovski, Stoyan Beshkow, Janko Kolarov, Krasimir Kumanski, Alexi Popov, and Emiliya Vassileva

Summary

The orders described in this paper cover 54% (10,283 species) of the Bulgarian entomofauna. The study of them began 160 years ago and a number of groups have been very well investigated (e.g., Neuroptera and Trichoptera). Hymenoptera and Diptera are the least investigated; the number of known species in these orders is estimated at 28 to 33% of the actual total. The least investigated geographic regions are: the eastern Predbalkan Mountain; some mountains in the Kraishte-Konyavo region; the Plana, Sashtinska Sredna Gora, and Vlahina Mountains; the Maleshevska Planina Mountain; the Mesta River valley; and some parts of the Rhodopes.

In terms of total species, the richest orders are Hymenoptera (4000), Lepidoptera (2860), and Diptera (2800). Rare (793), endemic (271), and relict (42) taxa represent 10.7% of the species composition of the described insects. The highest percentage of rare species belong to the Neuroptera (27.4%) and Trichoptera (18.0%). Most of them are found in the Kresna gorge and the Sandanski-Petrich valley (20.3%) and along the northern Black Sea coast (14.4%). The percentage of endemics is highest in Orthoptera (28.0%) and lowest in Diptera (1.0%). The endemics occur most frequently in the Pirin (21.8%) and Rila (20.7%) Mountains, and in the Sandanski-Petrich valley and the Kresna gorge (19.6%). The territories richest in rare, endemic, and relict taxa are: the Kresna gorge, Sandanski-Petrich valley, the Black Sea coast, the high parts of the Pirin and Rila Mountains, the western Rhodopes and Vitosha Mountain.

In this paper, three territories of special environmental importance are delineated: (1) the high mountains; (2) the middle course of the Strouma River; and (3) the Black Sea coast. The small isolated populations along the Black Sea coast, which have developed under ecotone conditions, and the relict communities of glacial origin in the mountains demonstrate high sensitivity to anthropogenic influences. The territories with the richest fauna are also defined: the middle course of the Strouma River valley, the northern Black Sea coast, and the Pirin Mountains. The most threatened habitat types and their distribution for the different orders are described. This paper includes recommendations for the conservation of the different insect groups and proposals for new protected natural territories in the Sandanski-Petrich valley, the Kresna gorge, Belasitsa, the Black Sea coast, the Stara Planina, the Rhodopes, and the Strandzha Mountain region. This paper also stresses the need for a red data book on the invertebrates in Bulgaria and for inventories of the invertebrates in the biosphere reserves.

A Brief History of Entomological Research

The first Bulgarian entomological studies were conducted 160 years ago (Frivaldsky, 1833). Entomological investigations prior to the liberation of Bulgaria were carried out primarily by foreigners, including Imre von Frivaldsky, Herman Loew, Josef Haberhauer, Eduard Merkl, Theobald Kruper, and Count Amedee Alleon. After liberation, a number of well known foreign specialists - August Forel, Franz Klapalek, Viktor Apfelbeck, Hans Rebel - as well as the first Bulgarian entomologists - Nikola Nedyalkov, Dimitar Yoakimov, Porfiriy Bachmetjew, Andrey Markovich, Hristo Pigulev - began their studies.

With the establishment of the entomological station at the Royal Scientific Institutes in 1905 and the Entomology Department at the Agricultural Research Institute in Sofia in 1909, Bulgarian entomology entered a new stage. These developments led to an upswing in entomological studies and an increasing number of publications on this subject. In the News of the Royal Natural Science Institutes in Sofia (the publication with the best reputation in the natural sciences in Bulgaria between the two world wars) there were 52 publications on entomology, exceeding the number of articles in all other subject areas. The number of Bulgarian entomologists increased rapidly after World War II, and their investigations moved beyond the boundaries of Bulgaria. Many internationally recognized experts, whose studies involved the fauna of different parts of the world, began work at this time.

The first studies of Orthopteroidea were published at the end of the last century (Frey-Gessner, 1892). Between the two world wars, two articles by Bulgarian authors were published: one on Orthoptera (Drenovski, 1929) and the other on Blattodea (Drenski, 1939). In the same period, the first article on the Bulgarian Embioptera appeared (Taborsky, 1938). In the works of some authors (Klapalek, 1895; Nedyalkov, 1909) data on different insect groups, including Orthoptera, are presented. After World War II many different studies of Orthoptera appeared (Buresh and Peshev, 1955-1958; Peshev, 1959-1986; Andreeva, 1978-1982; Bey-Bienco and Peshev, 1960; Popov and Ganev, 1983) and the first catalogue of the Bulgarian Orthopteroidea was prepared for publication.

The first studies of Neuropteroidea were conducted by Klapalek (1895) and Nedyalkov (1909). Later, the works of Navas (1929) and Buresh (1936) were published. Popov (1967-1990) provided a thorough study of the Bulgarian Neuroptera in his publications.

Forel (1895) was working on the Bulgarian Hymenoptera (the Formicidae family) at the end of the last century. Nedyalkov (1914) contributed to the thorough study of the whole order. Investigations between the two world wars encompassed the Hymenoptera parasites of the noxious insects (Chorbadzhiev, 1924-1933). The studies of Pittioni on Apoidea (1938-1942) and the first works of Atanasov (1934-1938) on Formicidae and Apoidea were also published at this time. After World War II many specialists went to work in this field. Their research covers different groups: Atanasov (1962-1976) - Apocrita; Kolarov (1977-1992) -Ichneumonidae; Zaykov (1980-1983) and Balevski (1991) - Braconidae; Pelov (1975-1991) - Proctotrupoidea; Donev (1985-1990) - Mimaridae. The pollinators in Apoidea were studied by Dochkova and Vassileva (1981-1991). However, only Symphytaa was the subject of a generalized faunistic monograph (Vassilev, 1978).

Klapalek (1894, 1913) undertook the first studies of the Bulgarian Trichoptera. Other authors who published catalogues on the Bulgarian fauna also contributed to the investigation of this group (Georgiev and Beron, 1962-1972). The thorough study of the Bulgarian Trichoptera is associated with the publications of Kumanski (1968-1988). Hydrobiological studies of the Bulgarian rivers (Russev, 1963-1990) also contributed our knowledge of this group. Kumanski (1988) published a generalized faunistic monograph on the Trichoptera in Bulgaria.

Approximately 800 articles containing data about butterflies in Bulgaria are known to have been published. The first studies of Bulgarian butterflies were made by Fri-valdsky (1837). Generalized monographs were written at the beginning of the century (Bachmetyev, 1902; Rebel, 1903). Drenovski (1927 and 1930) later developed a review of the butterfly fauna in the high Bulgarian mountains. Buresh and Tuleshkov (1929-1943) issued a critical catalogue on the Macrolepidoptera in Bulgaria. The recently published catalogues of Ganev (1983-1986) provide an overview of the Bulgarian butterfly fauna. A generalized faunistic work on the Rhopalocera has been prepared for publication.

The first studies of Bulgarian Diptera were made by Loew (1862, 1863). Subsequently, investigations of different families (mainly involving taxa of economic importance) began. Nedyalkov (1912) and Drenski (1930-1960) contributed to the study of the whole order. After World War II, studies of the Diptera at the Black Sea coast (Beschovski, 1966-1982), the synanthropic and synbovile flies (Lavchiev, 1966-1990) and the water species (Tsvet-kov, 1955; Kovachev, 1969-1990; Michailova, 1977-1990) began. A number of researchers who published catalogues on Bulgarian fauna contributed to the study of our Diptera, including Valkanov (1957) on the flies of brackish waters and Georgiev and Beron (1962) on the troglophilian species. Hydrobiological investigations in Bulgaria contributed to studies of the water Diptera (Caspers, 1951; Valkanov, 1949; Kovachev, 1969-1990). Mycetophilidae (Bechev, 1988-1990), Cecidomyiidae (Dimitrova, 1989-1991) and Tachinidae (Houbenov, 1977-1992) were intensively investigated. The species composition of a number of families is well studied, but only one contemporary generalized monograph was published, on the Chloropidae family (Beshovski, 1985).

The attached reference list of 293 titles includes publications selected according to the judgment of the respective authors. According to contemporary understanding of the species in the different groups, the best and most comprehensively studied are those for which monographs in the Fauna of Bulgaria series have been written: Hymenoptera-Symphyta (Vassilev, 1978), Trichoptera (Kumanski, 1985, 1988), and Dichoptera-Chloropidae (Beschovski, 1985). The species in many groups that have not yet been monographed are nonetheless very well known, including those in the Orthoptera and Neuroptera. In some small orders - Blattodea, Mantodea, Isoptera, Embioptera, Raphidioptera, and Megaloptera -future investigations are unlikely to lead to substantial changes in species composition, since these have been very well studied.

Major Gaps In Knowledge

The different insect groups have been investigated to varying degrees. Least investigated are the orders Hymenoptera and Diptera, in which the number of known species is estimated to be from 28 to 33% of the total. Many families in these orders are almost completely unstudied. With a few exceptions, the studies of these groups have been faunistic or taxonomic in nature. The classifications of a number of Diptera families (Tabanidae, Syrphidae, and others) that were undertaken without reference to genital structures need to be revised. The enormous species diversity of Hymenoptera and Diptera, the small number of researchers, and the short-term nature of contemporary investigations make realistic faunal analyses difficult. It is difficult to define the exact number of genera because of the extensive nomenclature changes in some of the groups. The classification of taxa as endemic, rare, and relict should be regarded with some degree of uncertainty. Of 80 Diptera families known in Bulgaria, only 16 are comparatively well studied; of the rest, 14 are somewhat better investigated than the other 50. The situation is similar with regard to the parasitic hymenoptera, since only Ichneumonidae, Braconidae, Proctotrupidae and Mimaridae have been intensively studied.

Studies of the butterflies are considerably more complete; it is estimated that 68% of the total species composition is known. It is necessary, however, to revise the number of subspecies of Papilionidea described by Bulgarian scientists, and to introduce a system of synonyms wherever it is needed. In this way, the large number of endemics in this group - a reflection mainly of the large number of subspecies of questionable rank - can be reduced. The existing information on Microlepodoptera is insufficient. This group needs full faunistic investigations. Although a large number of regional faunistic investigations exist, almost all of them have been carried out in southern Bulgaria. In northern Bulgaria, by contrast, the only studies are incomplete, old-fashioned works that date back to the beginning of the century.

The notoriously negative role of the hematophagous and synanthropic diptera, the wide distribution of Diptera species, and the lack of attractive forms have led to the impression that this group is invulnerable to anthropogenic pressure. As a result, the problem of their conservation is not taken seriously enough. In fact, many Diptera members are adapted to specific microhabitats that are quite vulnerable to anthropogenic impacts.

The state of insect protection in Bulgaria is extremely unsatisfactory. Except for prohibitions on the collection of 12 attractive species of the Coleoptera and Lepidoptera orders (some of which are large in number), almost nothing has been done to protect insects. Two very substantial gaps are the lack of a red data book on the invertebrates in Bulgaria and the lack of inventories of the invertebrates in the biosphere reserves.

Assessment of Current Knowledge

Areas Requiring Further Investigations

Bulgaria's topography is diverse, its territory embracing both the Alpine-Himalayan mountain system and the East European plain. The proximity of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea, the broad influence of the European continental land mass, and the varied relief contribute to the formation of diverse climatic conditions. The topography and the climate have determined the characteristics and distribution of the soil, vegetation, and fauna. The insect fauna of this complex biogeographical territory have not been studied to an equal degree. The different orders have been insufficiently investigated in the following areas:

The least investigated territories with respect to all orders are the eastern Predbalkan, the middle Danubian plain, some mountains of the Kraishte-Konyavo part of the Prehodna region, Plana, Sashtinska Sredna Gora, Vlahina and Malashevska Mountain, the Mesta River valley, and some parts of the Rhodopes.

Species Diversity (Table 1)

Three of the orders described in Table 1 are high in species diversity: Hymenoptera - 4000 species (21% of the Bulgarian entomofauna's 19,000 species); Lepidoptera - 2860 species (15% of the Bulgarian entomofauna); and Diptera - 2800 species (14.7% of the Bulgarian entomofauna). As these orders are more fully studied, the number of species is expected to increase: Hymenoptera - about 12,000 species (30% of the fully investigated Bulgarian entomofauna, which is estimated to include about 40,000 species); Lepidoptera - about 4200 species (10.5% of the fully investigated Bulgarian entomofauna); and Diptera - about 10,000 species (25% of the fully investigated Bulgarian entomofauna).

The tremendous species diversity in the Hymenoptera and Diptera, the small number of researchers, and the relatively limited extent of contemporary studies hamper the ability to classify taxa as rare, endemic and relict. Furthermore, the actual faunistic diversity of these orders is still not known. For these reasons, this classification should be considered tentative, and a degree of uncertainty assumed.

The orders Orthoptera (207 species - 1.1%), Neuroptera (113 species - 0.6%) and Trichopter (250 species - 1.3%) are moderately rich in species. They are the best investigated orders in Bulgaria.

There is a small degree of species diversity (from 1 to 15 species) in the following orders: Blattodea, Mantodea, Isoptera, Dermaptera, Embioptera, Mega loptera, Raphidoptera and Mectoptera.

A better sense of the diversity of the Bulgarian entomofauna can be gained by comparing it to that of Central Europe, especially if one considers the well investigated groups (Table 1). In a number of groups that are not described in this report, species diversity is greater than that of Central Europe.

Table 1. Species richness, degree of study, rare and endemic species of the examined Insecta groups

Orders Species establ. in Bulg. Possible sp. Numb. in Bulg. Degree of study (%) Endemic Rare Relicts Species establ. in Cent. Europe
Blattodea 15 20 75.0 1 2 0 12
Mantodea 4 5 80.0 0 1 0 1
Isoptera 2 2 100.0 0 1 0 1
Orthoptera 207 250 82.8 58 29 3 131
Dermpatera 7 15 46.6 0 3 0 7
Embioptera 1 2 50.0 0 1 0 0
Megaloptera 3 4 75.0 0 1 0 3
Raphidioptera 14 17 82.3 2 3 0 13
Neuroptera 113 120 94.2 1 31 1 114
Mecoptera 7 10 70.0 0 2 0 9
Hymenoptera 4,000 12,000 33.3 45 317 0 11,500
Trichoptera 250 260 96.1 33 47 1 300
Lepidoptera 2,860 4,200 68.1 103 136 37 3,200
Diptera 2,800 10,000 28.0 28 218 0 9,000
All 10,283 26,905 38.2 271 793 42 24,291

Rare Species (Tables 2, 4, 5)

This category includes taxa known from single habitats and represented by small populations. The orders highest in the percentage of rare species are Neuroptera (27.4%) and Trichoptera (18.0%). Orthoptera is moderate in its percentage or rare species (14.0%), while the rest of the orders are low.

There are 29 rare species in Orthoptera. Most of them are found in the Sandanski-Petrich valley (6 thermophilic species), the Rhodopes, and at the Black Sea coast. The percentage of rare species is almost evenly distributed at 12-13% each between the Ensifera and Caelifera suborders.

The greatest number of rare species in the order Neuroptera, which contains 31 rare species altogether, have been found in the eastern Stara Planina Mountains, in the Rila Mountains, and in the Strouma River valley. This reflects the fact that most of these are dendrobionts, and many are thermo- and xerophilic in character. The percentage of rare species is highest (50%) in the Coniopterygidae family, about equal (19-21%) in the Chrysopidae and Hemerobiidae, and a bit higher (22-31%) in families where thermophilous species predominate.

The Hymenoptera include 317 rare species. Most of these have been discovered in the Sandanski-Petrich valley (58 species), the western Rhodopes (35 species), the Thracian lowland (33 species), Vitosha Mountain (35 species), the western Predbalkan (28 species) and the western Stara Planina Mountains (29 species). The percentages of rare species are high in the families Colletidae (60%) and Anthrophoridae (46%); moderate in Andrenidae (17%); and low in Chrysididae (7.5%). The members of the Aculeata suborder are mainly thermophilous species. Consequently, about 80% of them inhabit the lowlands and hills up to an altitude of 300 meters. About 20% of the species, mainly of the Apidae family (the Bombus and Psithyrus genera), have been found in the highlands (above 1,000 m).

Table 2. Distribution of the endemic, rare, and relict species of Blattodea, Mantodea, Isoptera, Embioptera, Orthoptera, Dermaptera, Megaloptera, Raphidioptera, Neuroptera, Mecoptera, Hymenoptera, Trichoptera, Lepidoptera, and Diptera in Bulgaria

Territories All Endemic Rare Relict
# % # % # %
Danubian plain   1 1   0.4    
     Western 10 3 1.1 7 0.9    
     Central 6 3 1.1 3 0.4    
     Eastern 12 4 1.5 8 1.0    
Predbalkan 2     2 0.2    
     Western 39 5 1.8 33 4.2 1 2.4
     Central 12 1 0.4 11 1.4    
Stara Planina 19 8 2.9 10 1.3 1 2.4
     Western 82 21 7.7 58 7.3 3 7.1
     Central 66 26 9.6 27 3.4 13 30.9
     Eastern 57 14 5.2 39 4.9 4 9.5
Prehodna geographical region              
     Kraishte-Konyavo area 33 11 4.0 21 2.6 1 2.4
     Sofia valley 31 7 2.6 24 3.0    
      Lyulin 12 8 2.9 4 0.5    
     Vitosha 109 29 10.7 61 7.7 19 45.2
     Plana 6 2 0.7 4 0.5    
     Podbalkan valleys 13 3 1.1 9 1.1 1 2.4
     Sredna Gora 6 2 0.7 4 0.5    
          Ichtimanska 10 4 1.5 6 0.7    
          Sashtinska 5 3 1.1 2 0.2    
          Sarnena 13     13 1.6    
     Thracian lowland 52 10 3.7 42 5.3    
     Sakhar-Tundzha region 37 8 2.9 29 3.6    
     Strandzha 43 14 5.2 27 3.4 2 4.8
Rila-Rhodopes massif              
     Osogovo Mountain 28 18 6.6     10 23.8
     Vlachina Mountain 4 3 1.1 1 0.1    
     Malashevska Planina 5 4 1.5 1 0.1    
     Ograzhden 28 8 2.9 18 2.3    
     Belasitsa 82 20 7.4 28 3.5 3 7.1
     Rila 106 56 20.7 48 6.0 34 80.9
     Pirin 121 59 21.8 33 4.1 29 69.0
     Slavyanka 67 31 11.4 28 3.5 8 19.0
     Central Strouma valley 215 53 19.6 161 20.3 1 2.4
     Mesta valley 3 2 0.7 1 0.1    
     Rhodopes 54 37 13.6 14 1.8 3 7.1
          Western 108 23 8.5 74 9.3 11 26.2
          Eastern 44 14 5.2 30 3.8    
Black Sea coast 8 4 1.5 4 0.5    
     Northern 142 28 10.3 114 14.4    
     Southern 120 22 8.1 97 12.2 1 2.4
Wide distribution up given altitude 6 5 1.8 1 .01    
Total: 1,106; 10.7% 1106 271  24.5 793 71.7 42 3.8
Known in Bulgaria: 10,283   2.6   7.7   0.4

Trichoptera contains 47 rare species, most of them found in the Strandzha Mountain region (15 species) and in the Rhodopes (13 species).

The number of rare taxa in Lepidoptera is 136. About half (64) have been found in the Strouma River valley. The territories with the greatest faunistic diversity are found in this valley: the Kresna defile gorge, the Sandanski-Petrich valley, and the Kozhuch volcanic hill. These sites are also among the best investigated. Another region with high numbers of rare species is the Dobrudzha Black Sea coast, where 24 rare taxa have been found. The percentage of rare species in Lepidoptera (4.7%) is low.

The number of rare species in the Diptera is 218 (7.8%). They are found mainly along the Black Sea coast - 78 species along the northern seacoast and 54 species along the southern seacoast. A substantial number of rare dipteran species (20) has been found in the Kresna defile gorge and in the Sandanski-Petrich valley.

The total number of rare species in all the orders is 793. The total percentage of rare species in these orders is low - 7.7% of the total number of species known in Bulgaria (10,283). The areas with the highest number of such species are: the Strouma River valley, especially the Kresna defile gorge and the Sandanski-Petrich valley (161 species), the northern and southern Black Sea coast (114 and 97 species respectively), the western Stara Planina Mountains (58 species), the eastern Stara Planina Mountains (39 species), and the Rila Mountains (48 species).

Endemic Species (Tables 2 and 3)1

The total number of endemic taxa in the described orders is 271 (2.6% of the total - a low level of endemism). They are divided into two categories - Bulgarian (local and regional) endemics and Balkan endemics (see Table 3) - and are unevenly distributed in the different orders.

The total number of endemics in Orthoptera is 58 (14.0%). This can be considered a moderate level of endemism. The difference in the percentage of endemic taxa in the two Orthoptera suborders is great: 42% of the Ensifera are endemics, as compared to 4% of Caelifera. The high level of endemism in Ensifera (45% in the Tettigonidae and 63% in the Phaneropterinae subfamilies) reflects the presence of several genera experiencing an intensive process of species formation in the Balkan Peninsula. The greatest number of endemics have been located in the Pirin Mountains (12), in the Kresna defile gorge and the Sandanski-Petrich valley (11), in the Slavyanka Mountain region (10), and in Belasitsa and the Rila Mountains (9 species each). The endemic species in the high mountains are primarily restricted to moun-tain habitats, while those in the lowlands are primarily xerothermic.

The level of endemism in Neuroptera is extremely low - only one species of the Neurorthidae family (a stenobiont with larvae inhabiting cold streams at an altitude of about 900-1000 m). The case with Blattodea (one endemic, located on Vitosha Mountain) and Rapidioptera (2 endemics) is similar.

The level of endemism in Hymenoptera is low: 45 species (1.1%). Some newly described taxa in the parasitic Hymenoptera can be considered potential endemics. The greatest number of endemic species - 14 species each - has been found in the Sandanski-Petrich valley and in the Rhodopes.

The level of endemism in Trichoptera is moderate: 33 species (13.2%). Most of the species in this order inhabit clean, oxygen-rich waters, so the endemics are concentrated in the mountains: in the Rilas (16 species), Stara Planina (15), Rhodopes (14) and Pirins (12). Seventeen of the established endemics are typical for Bulgaria only, while the rest (16) are also Balkan endemics.

The level of endemism in Lepidoptera is low: 103 species (3.6%). The territories with the most endemic species are: the Rilas (34), the Pirins (36), the central Stara Planina (15-24), Vitosha Mountain (17), Slavyanka, the Rhodopes, the Sandanski-Petrich valley, and the Kresna defile gorge (23). In terms of specific sites, the Kresna defile gorge ranks first in the number of endemic species (8). A considerable number of the endemic taxa are subspecies. Forty-five of the endemics located are typical for Bulgaria only. The other 58 are also Balkan endemics.

The level of endemism in Diptera is low: 28 species (1.0%). This level will probably rise if several newly described taxa are determined to be endemics. The highest number of endemic dipterans have been located on the northern and southern Black Sea coasts (10 species each). Of the 28 endemics 24 are typical only in Bulgaria. The others are Balkan endemics.

Of described groups the richest endemic areas are: the Pirin Mountains (59); the Rila Mountains (56); the middle course of the Strouma River, including the Kresna defile gorge and the Sandanski-Petrich valley (53); the Rhodopes (about 50); Slavyanka (31); Vitosha Mountain (29); the northern Black Sea coast (28); and the central Stara Planina Mountains (26 taxa). The most active local centers of species formation are concentrated in several of these regions and their conservation is of special importance.

Relict Species (Tables 2, 4, 5)

Relict species are described in several of the orders. Two species in Orthoptera are glacial relicts, while one species is probably a Tertiary petrobiont. One glacial relict of the Hemerobiidae has been established in Neuroptera. One Tertiary relict in Trichoptera has been determined. The number of relict species in Lepidoptera is larger (37). Most of these are found in the Rila, Pirin, Vitosha, and in central Stara Planina Mountains (Table 2). Their concentration in the high mountains is due to their glacial origins. The areas with the highest number of relicts are: the Rila (34), Pirin (29), Vitosha (19), and central Stara Planina Mountains (13). Relicts are found in lower numbers (about 10 each) at Slavyankaand Osogovska Mountains and in the western Rhodopes.

Table 3. Distribution of the endemic taxa of the examined groups in Bulgaria

Territories Bulgarian Balkan
Local Regional
# % # % # %
Danubian plain     1 0.8    
     Western         3 2.4
     Central     1 0.8 2 1.6
     Eastern 1 4.0 1 0.8 2 1.6
Predbalkan            
     Western     2 1.7 3 2.4
     Central         1 0.8
Stara Planina     4 3.4 4 3.1
     Western     10 8.4 11 8.7
     Central     11 9.2 15 11.8
     Eastern 4 16.0 4 3.4 6 7.2
Prehodna geographical region            
     Kraishte-Konyavo area     1 0.8 10 7.7
     Sofia valley 1 4.0 3 2.5 3 2.4
     Lyulin     2 1.7 6 4.7
     Vitosha     5 4.2 24 18.9
     Plana         2 1.6
     Podbalkan valleys     1 0.8 2 1.6
     Sredna Gora     1 0.8 1 0.8
          Ichtimanska     1 0.8 3 2.4
          Sashtinska     1 0.8 2 1.6
     Thracian lowland     2 1.7 8 6.3
     Sakhar-Tundzha region     2 1.7 6 4.7
     Strandzha     6 5.0 8 6.3
Rila-Rhodopes massif            
     Osogovo Mountain     3 2.5 15 11.8
     Vlachina Mountain     2 1.7 1 0.8
     Malashevska Planina     1 0.8 3 2.4
     Ograzhden     2 1.7 6 4.7
     Belasitsa 2 8.0 4 3.4 14 11.0
     Rila 5 20.0 19 15.9 32 25.2
     Pirin 6 24.0 20 16.9 33 25.9
     Slavyanka 2 8.0 6 5.0 23 18.1
     Central Strouma valley 2 8.0 16 13.4 35 27.5
     Mesta valley     1 0.8 1 0.8
     Rhodopes 3 12.0 9 7.6 25 19.7
          Western     12 10.1 11 8.7
          Eastern     9 7.6 5 3.9
Black Sea coast     1 0.8 3 2.4
     Northern 5 20.0 12 10.1 11 8.7
     Southern     13 10.9 9 7.1
Wide distribution up given altitude         5 3.9
Total: 271; 2.6% 25 9.2 119 43.9 127 46.9

Table 4. Distribution of the endemic, rare, and relict insects of the Orthoptera, Neuroptera, and Hymenoptera in Bulgaria

Territories Orthoptera Neuroptera Hymenoptera
A B C A B C A B C
Danubian plain                  
     Western 1       1     1  
     Central 2             1  
     Eastern 1       1        
Predbalkan                   
     Western 2       3     28  
     Central               9  
Stara Planina 4           1 9  
     Western 2 5     3   1 29  
     Central 3   1 1     1 13  
     Eastern 2 1 1   5   2 6  
Prehodna region                   
     Kraishte-Konyavo area         1 1 1 7  
     Sofia valley 1 3     1   1 5  
     Lyulin 3             3  
     Vitosha 5     1 1 1 1 35  
     Plana         2        
     Podbalkan valleys         1 1      
     Sredna Gora 1             2  
          Ichtimanska 1             2  
          Sashtinska 1             52  
          Sarnena               13  
     Thracian lowland 4       2   1 33  
     Sakhar-Tundzha region 3 2           10  
     Strandzha 6 2 1   4    1 3   
Rila-Rhodopes massif                  
     Osogovo Mountain 3     1   1      
     Vlachina Mountain 3                
     Malashevska Plan 1                 
     Ograzhden 2 1               
     Belasitsa 9       1     23  
     Rila 9 3 1   5 1 1 19  
     Pirin 12 2 1   2 1 1 6  
     Slavyanka 10             12  
     Cent. Strouma Val valley 11 6     8   14 58  
     Mesta valley 1           1    
     Rhodopes 10 2   1   1 3 10  
          Western 1 2     5   8 35  
          Eastern 2 1         6 6  
Black Sea coast 2 1           3  
     Northern 3 1     1   2 7  
     Southern 1 4 1   2   3 14  
Total Number 58 29 3 1 31 1 45 317 0
Total (%) 28 14 1.4 0.9 27.4 0.9 1.1 7.9 0
Known in Bulgaria:   207     113     4000  
 Note: A - Endemic, B - Rare, C - Relict

Table 5. Distribution of the endemic, rare, and relict insects of the Trichoptera, Lepidoptera, and Diptera in Bulgaria

Territories Trichoptera Neuroptera Diptera
A B C A B C A B C
Danubian plain       1          
     Western   1   2 4        
     Central       1 1     1  
     Eastern   1   3 2     2  
Predbalkan                2  
     Western       2 2 1      
     Central       1 1        
Stara Planina 15 8       1      
     Western 3 3   12 8 3 3 10  
     Central 6 3   15 7 12   4  
     Eastern 1 2   9 14 3   10  
Prehodna region                  
     Kraishte-Konyavo area 1 1   9 10     1  
     Sofia valley   4   4 3   1 8  
     Lyulin       5 1        
     Vitosha 9 1   174.2 8 18 1 16  
     Plana       2       2  
     Podbalkan valleys       3 3     3  
     Sredna Gora       1       1  
          Ichtimanska       3          
          Sashtinska   1   2          
          Sarnena       5 6        
     Thracian lowland       4 18        
     Sakhar-Tundzha region 1     4 3   1    
     Strandzha 5 15 1             
Rila-Rhodopes massif                  
     Osogovo Mountain 2     12   9      
     Vlachina Mountain         1        
     Malashevska Plan 3 1               
     Ograzhden       6 17         
     Belasitsa 2     8 4 3      
     Rila 16 3   34 7 31   9  
     Pirin 12     36 15 27 1 8  
     Slavyanka       21 12 8   4  
     Cent. Strouma Val valley 3 2   23 64 1  1 20  
     Mesta valley   1              
     Rhodopes 14 13   12 1 2      
          Western 2 6   12 19 11   7  
          Eastern   1   3 18   3 3  
Black Sea coast       2          
     Northern    3   13 24   10 78  
     Southern       8 17   10 54  
Distributed up given altitude 3     2          
Total Number 33 47 1 103 136 37 28 218 0
Total (%) 13.2 18.0 0.4 3.6 4.7 1.3 1.0 7.8 0
Known in Bulgaria:   250     2860     2800  
 Note: A - Endemic, B - Rare, C - Relict

Ecosystems and Unique Communities

The extreme variety of physiogeographic conditions in Bulgaria and the historical development of its fauna are the main factors influencing the formation of its unique communities. Some of these communities are refugia in which many rare, endemic, and relict taxa of different origins are preserved.

The separate orders of insects occur to varying degrees within different ecosystems and communities in Bulgaria. Specific limited habitat types exist for Orthoptera and Neuroptera. The high mountain meadows are of greatest importance; less important are the mountain forests, glades, and some biotopes of Mediterranean character (the Kresna defile gorge and a number of southern Black Sea coastal regions).

Some mountainous karst areas are important for the parasitic Hymenoptera, while the regions of the Black Sea coast are important for a number of forest communities with well preserved fauna. The following specific altitudinal zones above 800 m have been shown to contain a high number of Aculeata species: the western Predbalkan, the Sandanski-Petrich valley, the Thracian lowland, and the southern Black Sea coast.

As noted above, most species in Trichoptera are adapted to clean, oxygen-rich waters, which are found primarily in the mountains. For this reason, about 65% of the Trichoptera fauna is concentrated in regions above 800 m. The mountain communities in the Stara Planina Mountains, in the Rila, Pirin, and Rhodope Mountains, on Vitosha Mountain, as well as others in the watersheds of some lower mountains (Strandzha, for example), are of special interest.

The Lepidoptera are special for a number of reasons. Because a large number of experts have been working on butterflies over a period of many years, and because of the high degree of Lepidopteran species diversity, this order has contributed to the discovery of unique communities in almost all parts of the country. The Kresna defile gorge and the Sandanski-Petrich valley are characterized by high butterfly diversity, and have been well investigated. The Stara Planina, Rila, Vitosha, Pirin, Slavyanka, and western Rhodope Mountains are inhabited by unique, faunistically rich relict and refugium communities, in some of which active species formation processes are under way. In addition to endemic, rare and relict taxa, these mountains also support a large number of species found nowhere else in Bulgaria. There are several other regions with extremely interesting communities: lakes (wherein the high degree of faunal diversity is due to the ecotone effect), the Dobrudzha Black Sea coast between the towns of Balchik and Shabla (steppe and Mediterranean communities), and the southern Black Sea coast between the towns of Achtopol and Rezovo.

Several Diptera biotopes occurring only along the Black Sea coast are of special interest because specific halophilous and psammophilous community types are found there. They are exposed, however, to severe anthropogenic pressure and are extremely vulnerable.

Especially valuable with respect to all the groups described are the communities richest in endemic, rare and relict species (Table 2). Such communities can be found in the Kresna defile gorge, the Sandanski-Petrich valley, on the Black Sea coast, and in the higher parts of the Pirin, Rila, Stara Planina, Vitosha, Belasitsa, and Slavyanka Mountains.

Ecologically Important Areas

For the order Trichoptera, the most ecologically important areas are those portions of the watersheds above 800 m altitude, the glacial lakes, as well as the upper courses of a number of the Strandzha Mountain rivers: the Fakiiska, Ropotamo, Dyavolska, Karaagatchka, Veleka, Silistar, and Rezovska.

For the Orthoptera, there are similar territories in the high parts of the Stara Planina, the northern Pirins, the western and central Rila, the whole territory of Belasitsa and Slavyanka, and different parts of the Rhodopes.

For the parasitic Hymenoptera, areas of special ecological importance exist along the Black Sea coast, where unusual halophilic and xerophilic communities are found, as well as in the karst regions of the western Rhodopes. Important areas for the Aculeata are found in similar localities, but in low altitudes - the Sandanski-Petrich valley, the southern Thracian lowland, and the western Predbalkan (in the vicinity of Belogradchik).

With respect to the Lepidoptera, there are two types of areas of special ecological importance: (1) areas in the high mountains, where a number of boreal-alpine, arcto-alpine, and mountain elements and glacial relicts are concentrated; (2) areas in the lower elevations (e.g., Kresna gorge, the Sandanski-Petrich valley, the northern Black Sea coast) where Mediterranean and steppe elements are concentrated.

Special areas for the Diptera are evenly distributed along the Black Sea coast, where most of the endemic and rare representatives of the order are concentrated.

Based on this overview, three zones of special ecological importance can be delineated: (1) areas in and between the highest parts of the mountains; (2) the middle course of the Strouma River; and (3) along the Black Sea coast.

Sensitivity to Human Impacts

The described insect groups and the communities in which they exist demonstrate different degrees of sensitivity to different types of pollution and other anthropogenic environmental influences. The small isolated populations on the Black Sea coast, which develop in highly specific ecotone conditions, are particularly sensitive. They are connected with stagnant (freshwater and brackish) or semi-stagnant basins, which are sensitive to pollution. At the same time, they typically exist in psammophilic and halophilic communities that are extremely vulnerable to anthropogenic influence. These conditions involve primarily representatives of the Lepidoptera and Diptera.

The populations in relict and refugium community types, concentrated in the orophytic zone of the mountains, are also distinguished by their high degree of sensitivity to anthropogenic impacts. In these communities, the anthropogenic impact is not so obvious and often the number of the populations is larger. Some Orthoptera and many Trichoptera and Lepidoptera play very important roles in these communities.

The Orthoptera, Hymenoptera, and Lepidoptera that inhabit the valleys (Kresna gorge, the Sandanski-Petrich valley, and the Thracian lowland) probably demonstrate a moderate level of sensitivity to anthropogenic impacts. However, these territories are most seriously affected by the use of agricultural and industrial chemicals, to which insects are highly sensitive. Almost all groups of insects demonstrate high sensitivity to combinations of anthropogenic influence, as commonly found on the Black Sea coast, in the Thracian lowland, and in the Sandanski-Petrich valley.

Possible Threats

With respect to Trichoptera, the larvae of which are aquatic, the threats are mainly pollution and the drainage or serious reduction of waters in the upper course of rivers as a result of the hydrotechnical construction. For the other groups the threats are similar, and are due mainly due to: destruction of the habitats of whole communities; treatment with insecticides; cultivation of improper flora species, necessitating the use of insecticides; pasturing of cattle in the higher slopes of the mountains; building of ski slopes and the treatment of these slopes with chemicals; installation of mercury lighting fixtures, which are very attractive for night insects, in regions with rich entomofauna.

Representative Sites

For the various orders, the most interesting representative areas are located in the following regions:

Orthoptera and Neupteroidea: Slavyanka, Belasitsa (above 800 m), and Strandzha Mountains, and the Black Sea coast between Sinemorets and Rezovo.

Hymenoptera: for Parasitica, the forest communities of the Rhodopes; for Aculeata, the Thracian lowland, the Sandanski-Petrich valley, and the southern Black Sea coast.

Trichoptera: the Strandzha, Stara Planina, the Rhodopes, Rila, and Vitosha Mountains.

Lepidoptera: the Kresna defile gorge, Zemen gorge, and the volcanic hill of Kozhuh.

Diptera: the Black Sea coast.

The three regions with extremely rich entomofauna in Bulgaria are the valley of the middle course of the Strouma River, the Pirin mountains, and the northern Black Sea coast.

Historic, Current, and Potential Threats

The formation of the contemporary fauna began in the Tertiary period and continued into the Quaternary. During the Tertiary, some relict species were able to survive in euxinous communities, concentrated mainly in the Tundzha-Strandzha subregion. During the Quaternary, a large number of glacial relicts with boreal-mountain and arcto-alpine distribution survived throughout the high mountains.

In the last 1000 years, human influence has brought about the extinction of almost all the primary Quercus forest flora and a number of Pinus communities in the high parts of the mountains. In the last few decades, the small number of steppe communities that survived in northeastern Bulgaria have also been extirpated. Now the threats to the survival of the fauna are considerably more serious, and somewhat more specific to the different groups.

With respect to the Trichoptera, pollution of the rivers in the plains has reduced faunistic diversity (for example, in the Danube and Strouma river) and even totally destroyed it (for example, in the Iskar from Sofia to Mezdra, and the Maritsa below the town of Kritchim). The most threatened species are those whose larvae develop in the middle and lower courses of the rivers. The Trichoptera are quite sensitive to changes in the aquatic environment and are extremely vulnerable to anthropogenic influences that are strongest in these regions - the alteration of river courses, untreated industrial and household waste waters, and so forth.

As for the other insect groups, the most threatened populations are those that inhabit the lowlands (the Sandan-ski-Petrich valley, the Thracian lowland) and the Black Sea coast, where the anthropogenic influence is strongest. The negative impact on Hymenoptera (Aculeata) in the regions of Stara Zagora, Plovdiv, Zlatitsa, Pirdop, Bourgas, Sofia, and the Vitosha Mountain has been demonstrated. There are potential threats for the Lepidoptera in the region of the Kozhuch volcanic hill, where a resort has been planned, and in the region of Sinemorets as a result of unplanned resort development. All activities associated with cultivation, enlargement of beaches, and construction along the Black Sea coast are a real threat to the survival of the unique halophilic and psammophilic communities in which many Diptera dominate.

Recommendations

The insect orders described need both specific and general recommendations for conservation. Specific recommendations for the survival of the different groups are:

Orthopteroidea and Neuropteroidea: Halt the unplanned and uncontrolled use of chemicals in agriculture and forestry. Cease entirely the use of chemicals in mountain forest communities. Require environmental controls on activities in the mountain regions.

Hymenoptera: Prevent the unplanned use of chemicals on arable lands. Conserve the small "islands" of uncultivated land in monoculture areas (around poles, trees, bushes, etc.) where plants important to insect survival grow. This is an especially important factor for the survival and dispersal of a number of parasitic insects.

Trichoptera: Require environmental impact assessments of all the hydrotechnical activities in the mountains. Control the waste treatment facilities in the mountain huts and hotels. Reduce river pollution to a minimum. Protect important natural areas.

Lepidoptera. Conduct studies of the regional fauna in northern Bulgaria. Protect important natural areas. Prepare red data books. Bring a stop to the unplanned releases of pheasants and partridges, which feed on the entire invertebrate fauna. Select lighting fixtures with reduced ultraviolet radiation.

Diptera. Reduce to a minimum the destruction of the halophilic and psammophilic communities at the Black Sea coast. Protect important natural areas.

In most cases, the general recommendations for conservation concern all invertebrates. For a long time the conservation of invertebrates has depended on the protection of forests and large vertebrates. It was even assumed that it was sufficient to protect only the territories of importance to a few vertebrates. Some of the recommendations offered below are important not only for the insects described in this paper, but for many other organisms and community types.

Appendix 1. Bulgarian Endemic Species of Orthoptera and Neuroptera

ORTHOPTERA

Acrididae

Stenobothrus (Stenobothrus) bulgaricus Ramme, 1933
      Rhodopi mountain: Hvoyna-Chepelare.

Gryllidae

Diskoptila buresi Maran, 1958
      Aladzha manastir.
Gryllomorpha dalmatina strumae Andreeva, 1982
      Blagoevgrad; Melnik; Kozhouh mtn.
Tartarogryllus sandanski Andreeva, 1982
      Petrich: Marino pole.

Pamphagidae

Paranocarodes chopardi Peshev, 1965
      E. Rhodopi mtn; Pelevoun.

Tettigoniidae

Ephippiger ephippiger balcanicus Andreeva, 1985
      N. Bulgaria; Stara planina.
Ephippiger ephippiger varnensis Andreeva, 1985
      Kavarna; Balchik; Pobiti kamani near Varna.
Eupholidoptera beybienkoi Peshev, 1962
      Loukovit; Ribaritsa.
Eupholidoptera marani Peshev, 1960
      Rila mtn: Bistritsa; Petrich.
Isophya andreevae Peshev, 1981
      Kresnensko defile.
Isophya bureschi Peshev, 1959
      Rila mtn: Semkovo, Youndola; Pirin mtn:
      Bansko.
Isophya gulae Peshev, 1981
      Elhovo: Gorna and Dolna Topchiya.
Isophya hospodar medimontana Nedelkov, 1908
      Lyoulin: above Knyazhevo; Lozenska
      mtn: Germanski manastir.
Isophya kisi Peshev, 1981
      Pirin mtn: Popina luka, Papaz chair;
      Slavyanka mtn.
Isophya miksici Peshev, 1985
      W. Stara planina mtn: peak Kom,
      Berkovitsa, Vratsa.
Isophya modesta longicaudata Ramme, 1951
      Dobroudzha; Black Sea coast.

Isophya petcovi Peshev, 1959
      Central and East Rhodopi mtn and
      adjacent parts of Thracian lowland;
      Ahtopol.
Isophya plevnensis Peshev, 1985
      Loukovit; Pleven; Pavlikeni.
Isophya pravdini adamovici Peshev, 1985
      Sliven: Sinite kamani.
Isophya pravdini bazyluki Peshev, 1985
      Central Stara planina mtn: peak Ambaritsa
Isophya parvdini pravdini Peshev, 1985
      Central Stara planina mtn: Troyan pass.
Isophya rammei Peshev, 1981
      Malko Turnovo.
Isophya rhodopensis Ramme, 1951
      West and Central Rhodopi mtn.
Pholidoptera aptera bulgarica Maran, 1952
      Kresnensko defile; Pirin mtn; Strandzha mtn.
Pholidoptera buresi Maran, 1957
      Pirin mtn; Popina luka.
Pholidoptera hoberlandti Maran, 1957
      Rila mtn: Rilski manastir.
Poecilimon affinis medimontanus Peshev, 1980
      Sredna gora mtn: peak Bratiya.
Poecilimon affinis rilensis Peshev, 1980
      Rila mtn: Rilski manastir; Parangalitsa.
Poecilimon affinis ruenensis Peshev, 1980
      Osogovo mtn: peak Rouen.
Poecilimon bulgaricus Andreeva, 1980
      Belasitsa mtn: peak Kalabak.
Poecilimon harzi Peshev, 1980
      Pirin mtn.
Poecilimon kisi Peshev, 1980
      Belasitsa mtn: peak Kalabak.
Poecilimon mistshenkoi marzani Peshev, 1980
      Pirin mtn.
Poecilimon mistshenkoi mistshenkoi Peshev, 1980
      Pirin mtn.
Poecilimon mistshenkoi tinkae Peshev, 1980
      Belasitsa mtn: peak Kalabak.
Poecilimon mistshenkoi vlachinensis Peshev, 1980
      Vlachina mtn; Maleshevska mtn; Ograzhden mtn.
Poecilimon peshevi Andreeva, 1978
      Vlachina mtn.

RAPHIDOIOPTERA

Raphidiidae

Phaeostigma (Pontographidia) rhodopica Klapalek, 1894
      Rhodopi mtn: Dobraluk, Hvoyna.

Appendix 2. Balkan Endemic Species of Orthoptera and Neuroptera

BLATTODEA

Ectobiidae

Phyllodromica (Phyllodromica) carniolica Ramme, 1913
      Vitosha mtn; Rila mtn.

NEUROPTERA

Neurorthidae

Neurorthus apatelios Aspck, Aspck & Hlzel, 1977
      Central Stara planina mtn; Vitosha
      mtn; Rhodopi mtn; Osogovo mtn.

ORTHOPTERA

Acrididae

Chortippus (Chortippus) parallelus tenuis Brulle, 1832
      Malko Turnovo: Bela Voda.

Pamphagidae

Paranocaracris bulgaricus bulgaricus Ebner & Drenowski, 1930
      Strouma valley; Pirin mtn; Slavyanka mtn;
      Strugach mtn; Mesta valley; Rhodopi mtn.

Rhaphidophoridae

Troglophilus neglectus vlasinensis Maran, 1958
      caves in West Stara planina mtn; SW.
      Bulgaria and Rhodopi mtn.

Tettigoniidae

Ancistrura nigrovittata Brunner van Wattenwyl, 1878
      Vitosha mtn; Belasitsa mtn; Slavyanka
      mtn; Rhodopi mtn; Eastern Stara planina mtn.
Gampsocleis abbriviata Hermann, 1874
      Slavyanka mtn.
Isophya hospodar hospodar Saussur, 1898
      Sofia; Chirpan; Eastern Rhodopi mtn;
      Sakar mtn; Strandzha mtn.
Isophya modestior modestior Brunner von Wattenwyl, 1882
      Vitosha mtn; Western Stara planina mtn.
Isophya obtusa Brunner von Wattenwyl, 1882
      Central Stara planina mtn: peak Vezhen.

Metrioptera (Broughtonia) arnoldi Ramme, 1933
      Stara planina mtn; Vitosha mtn; Lyulin mtn;
      Rila mtn; Pirin mtn; Rhodopi mtn.
Metrioptera (Oreseliana) fedtschenkoi ambitiosa Uvarov, 1924
      Strouma valley; Trhacian lowland; Strandzha
      mtn; Black Sea coast.
Metrioptera (Vichetia) oblongicollis Brunner von Wattenwyl, 1882
      Stara planina mtn; Pirin mtn; Rhodopi mtn;
      Strandzha mtn; Osogovo mtn: Slavyanka mtn;
      Sakar mtn; Black Sea coast.
Pholidoptera aptera karnyi Ebner, 1908
      all Bulgarian high mountains.
Pholidoptera macedonica Ramme, 1928
      Belasista mtn; Slavyanka mtn.
Pholidoptera rhodopensis Maran, 1952
      Rila mtn: Kostenets.
Platycleis (Modestana) ebneri ebneri Ramme, 1926
      Belasitsa mtn.
Platycleis (Montana) macedonica Berland & Chopart, 1922
      Strouma valley.
Poecilimon elegans Brunner von Wattenwyl, 1878
      Central part of North Bulgaria; Lyulin mtn;
      Vitosha mtn; Rila mtn; Rhodopi mtn; Sredna
      gora mtn.
Poecilimon macedonicus Ramme, 1926
      Southwest Bulgaria.
Poecilimon orbelicus Pancic, 1883
      Belasitsa mtn; Slavyanka mtn; Pirin mtn;
      Rila mtn; Rhodopi mtn.
Poecilimon zwicki Ramme, 1939
      Strouma valley; Ograzhden mtn; Belasitsa
      mtn; Slavyanka mtn; Pirin mtn; Rhodopi mtn.
Psorodonotus fieberi Frivaldszky, 1853
      Stara planina mtn; Osogovo mtn; Vlachina mtn;
      Pirin mtn; Belasitsa mtn; Rila mtn; Rhodopi mtn.
Saga campbelli gracilis Kis, 1962
      East Bulgaria.
Saga rammei Kaltenbach, 1965
      Petrich; Slavyanka mtn; Popovitsa near Plovdiv.

RAPHIDIOPTERA

Raphidiidae

Phaeostigma (Phaeostigma) pilicollis Stein, 1863
      Stara planina mtn; Strouma valley; Belasitsa
      mtn; Rila mtn; Rhodopi mtn.

Appendix 3. Rare Species of Orthoptera and Neuoptera

BLATTODEA

Ectobiidae

Ectobius punctatissimus Ramme, 1923
      Strandzha mtn: Gramatikovo

Polyphagidae

Polyphaga aegyptiaca Linnaeus, 1758
      Sandanski; Kozhouh mtn.

DERMAPTERA

Carcinophoridae

Anisolabis maritima Gene, 1832
      Sozopol.

Forficulidae

Anechura bipunctata Fabricius, 1781
      Asenovgrad.
Apterygida media Hagenbach, 1822
      Zemen: Skakavitsa.

EMBIOPTERA

Embiidae

Haploembia solieri Rambur, 1842
      Kresnensko defile; Kozhouh mtn;
      Maslen nos.

Isoptera

Kalotermitidae

Kalotermes flavicollis Fabricius, 1793
      Records in Bulgaria - uncertain.

MANTODEA

Mantidae

Iris oratoria Linnaeus, 1758
      Petrich; Harmanli; Ivaylovgrad.

MECOPTERA

Bittacidae

Bittacus tipularius Linnaeus, 1758
      Svishtov; Varna; Sredna gora mtn.

Boreidae

Boreus westwoodi Hagen, 1866
      Vitosha mtn: Sredets; Rila mtn: Saru gyol.

MEGALOPTERA

Sialidae

Sialis nigripes Pictet, 1865
      Lovech: Devetaki.

Mantispidae

Mantispa perla Pallas, 1772
      Kresnensko defile; Stara Zagora.
Mantispa styriaca Podna, 1761
      Sofia; Kresnensko defile; Stara Zagora.

Myrmeleontidae

Delfimeus irroratus Olivier, 1811
      Belogradchik; Kresnensko defile; Sandanski.
Myrmeleon (Myrmeleon) noacki Ohm, 1965
      Kresnensko defile; Strandzha mtn.
Nedroledon anatolicus Navas, 1914
      Belasitsa mtn; Strandzha mtn: peak Papia.
Nicarinus poecilopterus Stein, 1863
      Karlovo.

Sisyridae

Sisyra terminalis Curtis, 1854
      Strandzha mtn: Kovach.

ORTHOPTERA

Acrididae

Chorthippus (Chorthippus) montanus Charpentier, 1825
      Western Stara planina mtn.
Chorthippus (Glyptobothrus) vagans Eversmann, 1848
      Western Stara planina mtn: Purshevitsa.
Dociostaurus (Dociostaurus) tartarus Uvarov, 1921
      Petrich: Marino pole.
Dociostaurus (Stauronotulus) kraussi kraussi Ingenizkij, 1897
      Varna: Pobiti kamani
Duroniella laticornis Krauss, 1909
      Rhodopi mtn: Popsko
Epacromius coerulipes Ivanov, 1887
      Sozopol.
Epacromius tergestinus Charpentier, 1825
      Petrich.
Pallasiella turcomana Fischer de Waldheim, 1833
      Petrich: Marino pole; Pirinska Bistritsa river.
Platypygius crassus Karny, 1907
      Ropotamo river.

Catantopidae

Miramella (Miramella) alpina collina Brunner von Wattenwyl, 1882
      Rila mtn: Kostenets.
Odontopodisma schmidti Fieber, 1853
      Western Stara planina mtn; Rhodopi
      mtn: Asenovgrad.

 

Raphidiidae

Phaeostigma (Pontoraphidia) setulosa setulosa Aspck & Aspck, 1967
      Sliven: Karandila.
Puncha ratzenburgi Brauer, 1876
      Rila mtn: peak Popova shapka

NEUROPTERA

Ascalaphidae

Deleproctophylla australis Fabricius, 1787
      Ropotamo river.

Chrysopidae

Chrysopa phyllochroma Wesmael, 1841
      Preslav: Han Kroum; Arkoutina; Strandzha
      mtn: Katoun dere.
Chryospa walkeri Mac Lachlan, 1893
      Rakovitsa near Koula; Rabisha.
Nineta vittata Wesmael, 1841
      Stara planina mtn: Petrohan; Vitosha mtn:
      Zlatni mostove.
Nothochrysa capitata Fabricius, 1793
      Rila mtn: Borovets.
Peyerimhoffina gracilis Sneider, 1851
      Rila mtn: Borovets; Western Rhodopi
      mtn: Orfey.

Coniopterygidae

Aleuropteryx juniperi Ohm, 1968
      Sliven: Karandila; Rhodopi mtn: Markovo.
Aleuropteryx loewii Klapalek, 1894
      Western Stara planina mtn: Eleshnitsa;
      Pirin mtn: Predela.
Aleuropteryx umbrata Zeleny, 1964
      Belogradchik; Kresnensko defile.
Coniopteryx (Coniopteryx) pygmaea Enderlein, 1906
      Kotel.
Coniopteryx (Holoconiopteryx) haematica Mac Lachlan, 1968
      Sliven: Karandila.
Coniopteryx (Xeroconiopteryx) loipetsederi Aspck, 1963
      Primorsko.
Conwentzia psociformis Curtis, 1834
      Kotel; Plana mtn; Kokalyanski manastir.
Helicoconis aptera Messner, 1965
      Sandanski.
Helicoconis lutea Wallengren, 1871
      Rila mtn: Borovets; Rhodopi mtn:
      Smolyan.
Hemisemidalis pallida Withycombe, 1924
      Kresnensko defile.
Parasemidalis fuscipennis Reuter, 1894
      Rhodopi mtn: Markovo.

Hemerobiidae

Hemerobius (Hemerobius) atrifrons Mac Lachlan, 1868
      Stara planina mtn: Petrochan.
Hemerobius (Hemerobius) schedli Hlzel, 1970
      Rila mtn: Sitnyakovo, Marishki chal.
Hemerobius (Hemerobius) zernyi Esben-Petersen, 1935
      Kresnensko defile.
Psectra diptera Burmeister, 1839
      Zemen: Skakavitsa.
Sympherobius (Niremberge) klapaleki Zeleni, 1963
      Kotel; Plana mtn: Kokalyanski manastir;
      Rhodopit mtn: Smolyanski ezera.
Wesmaelius (Kimminsia) tjederi Kimmins, 1963
      Pirin mtn: Bunderitsa.
Wesmaelius (Wesmaelius) quadrifasciatus Reuter, 1894
      Rila mtn: Borovets.

Tettigoniidae

Andreiniimon nuptialis Karni, 1918
      Kresnensko defile; Petrich.
Barbitistes constrictus Brunner von Wattenwyl, 1878
      Rila mtn: Sitnyakovo.
Leptophyes discoidalis Frivaldszky, 1867
      Kresnensko defile; Berkovitsa; Vratsa.
Metrioptera (Broughtonia) domogledi Brunner von Wattenwyl, 1882
      Western Stara planina mtn.
Pholidoptera brevipes Ramme, 1939
      Kotel; Zheravna; Nesebur: Orizare.
Platycleis (Montana) stricta Zeller, 1849
      Sofia; Rial mtn: peak Elenin vruh.
Platycleis (Platycleis) falx Fabricius, 1775
      Rhodope mtn.
Platycleis (Tesselana) orina Burr, 1899
      Sakar mtn.
Platycleis (Tesselana) tesselata Charpentier, 1825
      Sofia.
Poecilimon affinis affinis Frivaldszky, 1867
      Western Stara planina mtn: peak Kom,
      Sveti Nikolska planina.
Poecilimon heinrichi Ramme, 1951
      Strandzha mtn: Bela Voda, Kovach.
Poecilimon miramae Ramme, 1933
      Strandzha mtn: Bela Voda.
Xya pfaendleri Harz, 1970
      Southwest Bulgaria; Rhodopi mtn.

RAPHIDIOPTERA

Inocelliidae

Parainocellia (Parainocellia) braueri Albarda, 1891
      Rila mtn: Rilski manastir; Primorsko.

Gryllidae

Arachnocephalus vestitus Costa, 1855
      Varna; Pomorie; Sozopol.
Gryllus bimaculatus De Geer, 1773
      exact locality unknown.
Modiocogryllus geticus Vasiliu, 1970
      Melnik; Ropotamo river.
Pteronemobius heydeni tartarus Saussure, 1874
      Ograzhden mtn: Lebnitsa.
Tartarogryllus burdigalensis Latreille, 1804
      Sofia; Rhodopi mtn: Bratsigovo, Krichim.

 

Appendix 4. Relict Species of Orthoptera and Neruoptera

NEUROPETERA

Hemerobiidae

Wesmaelius (Kimminsia) maladai Navas, 1925
      Vitosha mtn; Osogovo mtn; Rila mtn;
      Rhodopi mtn; Karlovo; Radomir.

ORTHOPTERA

Acrididae

Aeropedellus variegatus Fischer de Waldheim, 1846
      Rila mtn; Pirin mtn.

Catantopidae

Melanoplus frigidus Boheman, 1846
      Stara planina mtn: peak Botev; Pirin mtn:
      Kamenitsa; Slavyanka mtn.

Pamphagidae

Paranocarodes straubei straubei Fieber, 1853
      Sliven; Strandzha mtn; South Bulgarian Black
      Sea coast.

Appendix 5. Bulgarian Endemic Species of Hymenoptera: Parasitica

PARASITICA

Braconidae

Angelovia elypsocubitalis Zaykov
      Rhodopi mtn: Dolno Loukovo; hut Arda.
Opius daghnoides Zaykov & Fischer
      East Rhodopi mtn: Konush.
Opius plovdivensis Zaykov
      Plovdiv
Opius rarus Zaykov
      Rhodopi mtn: Markovo.
Symphya pappi Zaykov
      Rhodopi mtn: Peshtera: Hrabrino.

Ichneumonidae

Batakomacrus crassicaudatus Kolarov
      Rhodopi mtn: Batak, Stoykite, Hrabrino,
      Asenovgrad.
Cryptopimpla eleganta Kolarov
      Rhodopi mtn: hut Tshoudnite mostove.
Misetus tyloidalis Kolarov
      Strandzha mtn: Malko Turnovo.
Nothocremastus nigritulus (Kolarov)
      Rhodopi mtn: hut Tshoudnite mostove.

Mimaridae

Anagrus vilis Donev
      Primorsko.
Erythmelus angelovi Donev
      Asenovgrad: Loukouvitsa.
Ooctonus flaviventris Donev
      Rhodopi mtn: Pamporovo.
Rhila bulgarica Donev
      Rila mtn: hut Bodrost.

Proctotrupoidea

Trissolcus argus Petrov
      Rhodopi mtn: peak Karandzhiluka.
Trissolcus erectus Petrov
      Rhodopi mtn: Malevo.
Trissolcus fuscus Petrov
      Stara planina mtn: hut Momina polyana
Trissolcus nigricans Petrov
      Rhodopi mtn: Boykovo.
Trissolcus simplex Petrov
      Stara planina mtn: hut Dermenka.

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