Central America: Eastern Costa Rica and southern Nicaragua

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Mangroves are sparse in the southern part of this ecoregion, and are primarily found in estuarine lagoons and in patches in association with the freshwater palm species Raphia taedigera, and mixed with a high diversity of other species. In the Corn Islands for example, 15% of the wetlands are composed of Raphia taedigera and Rhizopora mangle. Mangrove densities increase in the northern part of the ecoregion. In addition to the association with the freshwater palms, these mangroves are part of a complex of diverse habitats that include humid broadleaf forest, pine forest, coastal wetlands and bamboo forests, as well as coral reefs and some of the most extensive seagrass beds in the world.

  • Scientific Code
    (NT1424)
  • Ecoregion Category
    Neotropical
  • Size
    1,700 square miles
  • Status
    Relatively Stable/Intact
  • Habitats

Description
Location and General Description
The Mosquitia-Nicaraguan Caribbean Coast mangrove ecoregion covers a large expanse of coastline beginning in Honduras at the delta of the Patuca River, continuing threw Nicaragua to a point just south of the Bahía Punta Gorda. Some off shore islands like Corn Island are also included in this ecoregion. Coastal areas generally consist of low alluvial floodplains that range from sea level to 20m; covered with palm swamps and mixed rainforest, and numerous blackwater canals and creeks. In between are beaches that are important nesting areas for endangered sea turtles that feed in the sea grass beds and visit mangrove areas.

The sparseness of mangroves is probably due to the dominance of freshwater in this system. Numerous rivers flow into the Caribbean Sea within this ecoregion including Cruta, Coco, Likus, Wawa, Kukalaya and Punta Gorda Rivers. There are also many lagoons along this coast some of them forming a complex system, such as those close together lying between the northern extent of the ecoregion and the Honduras/Nicaragua border. Annual rainfall ranges between over 5,000 m at the southern end, and approximately 3 m in the northern areas. Peak rainfall occurs in the warmest months between May and September. A relatively dry season occurs from January to April, which coincides with stronger trade winds that blow steadily from the east-northeast and temper the tropical heat. Tides are semi-diurnal with an average range of less than half a meter (Ryan et al 1998). Poorly drained silt and clay soils promote the formation of channels - depth of channels increases 2-6 m in the summer when the mouths of the Cuero and Salado Rivers close up.

In a number of places, such as on Corn Island, the direct connection to the ocean is blocked most of the year by sand dunes. These dunes are broken open when, after heavy rainfall, the wetlands are filled building hydrostatic pressure against the dunes allowing a temporary exchange between the wetlands and the offshore system (Ryan et al 1998).

The Atlantic coast in this area is relatively undeveloped. Population density is about 6 people per km2, except on the Corn Islands. Most of the country’s population is found on the Pacific Coast.

Biodiversity Features
This area of the Atlantic coast is part of a biological corridor that biogeographically links North and South America

The mangrove vegetation of this Caribbean Coast ecoregion tends to grow in even age stands (Roth 1997). Also they are often relatively young and small in stature due to periodical disturbance by hurricanes, which may result in a die-off of all mangroves, as occurred in 1988 resulting from Hurricane Joan. However, they do regenerate. Mangrove species are diverse in this ecoregion with red mangrove (Rhizophora mangle), black mangrove (Avicennia germinans), white mangrove (Laguncularia racemosa), buttonwood (Conocarpus erectus)and another species of red mangrove (R. harrisonii). Occasional rare occurrences of piñuelo mangrove (Pelliciera rhizophorae) have been reported; however, most source list its distribution as not extending north of Costa Rica. Plant species associated with mangroves include the leather fern (Acrostichum spp.), which also invades cut over mangrove stands and provides some protection against erosion. In this particular ecoregion, the mangroves are associated with the freshwater palm species (Raphia taedigera).

The offshore sea grass beds, which are the most extensive in the world, are a source of food and refuge for half of the world's, endangered green sea turtle population (Chelonia mydas). Mangroves play an important role in trapping sediments from land that are detrimental to the development of both coral reefs and the sea grasses that are associated with them.

In the Rio Platano Biosphere Reserve, mangroves are found on the fringe of coastal lagoons, where Rhizopora mangle and Langucularia racemosa are the most dominant species. Other plant species associated with mangroves here are sea grapes (Coccolaba uvifera) and coconut palms (Cocos nucifera). Inland from the coast is a savanna like are dominated by a subspecies of Caribbean pine (Pinus caribaea hondurensis) in the drier areas. In the moister areas, it consists of sedge prairie, which includes palm thickets of silver saw palmetto (Acoelorraphe wrightii). Other habitats found in different parts of the lowland areas are broadleaf gallery forests and swamp forests

Avifauna of this ecoregion as well, as mammals are not usually restricted to mangrove habitat but use the resources available in this ecoregion when needed. Migrants often rest or even spend the winter in this ecoregion. Migrations will also occur during times of drought or lowered resource availability in surrounding ecoregions. Birds more specific to mangrove communities roseate spoonbill (Ajaja ajaja), white-fronted parrot (Amazona albifrons), blue winged teal (Anas discors), common black hawk (Buteogallus anthracinus), muscovy duck (Cairina moschata), boat-billed heron (Cochlearius cochlearius), and mangrove warbler (Dendroica petechia). Birds that may visit mangrove communities include Amazona autumnalis, scarlet macaw (Ara macao), green macaw (Ara ambigua), military macaw (A. militaris), snowy cotinga (Carpodectes nitidus), and several parrots, parakeets, and hummingbirds.

Mammals commonly found within the mangrove areas include pacas (Agouti paca), ocelots (Leopardus pardalis), Central American otters (Lutra longicaudis), jaguars (Panthera onca), Baird's tapirs (Tapirus bairdii), Caribbean manatees (Trichecus manatus), collared peccaries (Tayassu tajacu), black mantled howler monkeys (Alouatta palliata), Geoffrey's spider monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi), and white-faced capuchins (Cebus capucinus). Also found in mangrove habitat are reptiles such as American crocodile (Crocodylus acutus), brown caiman (Caiman crocodilus), green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas), leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea), Eretmochelys imbricata, loggerhead turtle (Caretta caretta), iguana (Iguana iguana), ctenosaur (Ctenosaura similis), and snakes (Boa constrictor).

Current Status
Many of the mangroves on Corn Island where the population densities are highest have been degraded by sewage discharge. The current condition of the mangroves is mainly a result of natural processes of destruction and regeneration however some mangrove loss has resulted in the past.

Protected areas in this ecoregion that contain mangroves are all in Honduras and include the Rio Platano Biosphere Reserve, the Jeannette Kawas National Park, Barras de Cuero y Salado and Punta Izopo. The last 3 of these are considered wetlands of international importance under the RAMSAR convention.

Types and Severity of Threats
Upstream activities threaten mangroves due to alteration of hydrologic factors. Deforestation for timber extraction, mining, redirecting of surface water flow as a result of dam construction for hydroelectric development, land use change as a result of unplanned settlements and agricultural expansion including pesticide runoff, ranching and subsistence agriculture on steep slopes which leads to erosion are all such sources of change. Sedimentation is also causing problems for the reefs, together with discharges of wastes and chemical pollutants.

The increase incidence of tropical storms and hurricanes is a continual threat to mangrove ecoregions. In the Corn Islands, tropical storms occur on an average of once a year but in 1996, three tropical storms and one hurricane occurred. Hurricanes are expected once every fifty years but three have struck the Corn Islands in the past 8 years (Ryan et al 1998). Although it is not possible to unequivocally link these particular extreme events with climate change, an increase in their frequency is consistent with the predicted effects of climate change, in that they have a tendency to occur in warmer waters (Kjerfve and Macintosh 1997).

Justification of Ecoregion Delineation
Classification and linework for all mangrove ecoregions in Latin America and the Caribbean follow the results of a mangrove ecoregion workshop (1994) and subsequent report (Olson et al. 1996).

References
Ecoregional Workshop: A Conservation Assessment of Mangrove Ecoregions of Latin America and the Caribbean. 1994. Washington D.C., World Wildlife Fund.

Kjerfve, B., and D.J. Macintosh. 1997. The impact of climatic change on mangrove ecosystems. In B. Kjerfve, L.D. Lacerda, and E.H.S. Diop, editors, Mangrove ecosystem studies in Latin America and Africa. UNESCO, Paris, France.

Olson, D.M., E. Dinerstein, G. Cintrón, and P. Iolster. 1996. A conservation assessment of mangrove ecosystems of Latin America and the Caribbean. Final report for The Ford Foundation. World Wildlife Fund, Washington, D.C.

Roth, L.C. 1997. Implications of periodic hurricane disturbance for the sustainable management of caribbean mangroves. In B. Kjerfve, L.D. Lacerda, and E.H.S. Diop, editors, Mangrove ecosystem studies in Latin America and Africa. UNESCO, Paris France.

Ryan, J.D., L.J. Miller, Y. Zapata, O. Downs, and R. Chan. 1998. Great Corn Island, Nicaragua. In B. Kjerfve, editor, Caribbean coral reef, seagrass and mangrove sites. UNESCO, Paris France.

Prepared by: Sylvia Tognetti
Reviewed by: In process