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Marine Ecoregions of the World

Sources

Click here for a comprehensive listing of sources by province and ecoregion, as well as a listing of expert reviewers who contributed to the MEOW effort.

Expert Reviewers

The following were asked to review Marine Ecoregions of the World. We appreciate their contributions.

Asa Andersson - Baltic Sea
Jeff Ardron - NE Europe
Allison Arnold - New Zealand
Mike Beck - Temperate W Hemisphere
Ahmet Birsel - Europe
John Bolton - Southern Africa
George Branch - Southern Africa
Georgina Bustamente - Latin America
Rodrigo Bustamente - Latin America and Australia
Carel Drijver - Europe
Jose Farina - Temperate South America
Sergio Floeter - Tropical Atlantic
Angus Gascoigne - Sao Tome and Principe
Charlie Griffiths - East Africa
Huw Griffiths - Antarctic
Randy Hagenstein - Alaska/Bering
Chris Howe - New Zealand
David John - West Africa
Kenneth Kassem - SE Asia
Jerry Kemp - E Africa and Middle East
Phil Kramer - Wider Caribbean
Josh Laughren - Canada
Katrin Linse - Antarctic and Magellanic
Gilly Llewellyn - SE Asia
Melanie McField - Latin America
Vangie Miclat - SE Asia
Kasin Moosa - Indonesia
Alexis Morgan - Canada
Dag Nagoda - Barents Sea
Sergio Navarete - Temperate S America
Kate Newman - SE Asia
Ray Nias - Antarctica
(Bina) Maya Paul - Canada
Sian Pullen - Europe
Callum Roberts - Pacific
Rod Salm - Indo-Pacific
Katherine Short - Europe
Vassily Spiridonov - Arctic Russia
Andrew Smith - Pacific
Jen Smith - Canada
Victor Springer - Pacific
Juan Luis Suárez de Vivero - Europe
Katarina Veem - Baltic Sea
Charlie Veron - Tropics
Mohideen Wafar - India
Carden Wallace - Andaman/Java
Kathy Walls - New Zealand
David Woodland - SE Asia

References

Note: The following is a selection of some of the main references that have been used to inform the selection of ecoregions, it is a working list and in the interests of space we have excluded references that dealt only with single ecoregion boundaries or merely reiterated information from other sources.


Adey WH, Steneck RS (2001) Thermogeography over time creates biogeographic regions: a temperature/space/time - integrated model and an abundance-weighted test for benthic marine algae. Journal of Phycology 37: 677-698

Allen GR (2002) Indo-Pacific coral-reef fishes as indicators of conservation hotspots. Proceedings of the Ninth International Coral Reef Symposium, Bali 2: 921-926

Awad AA, Griffiths CL, Turpie JK (2002) Distribution of South African marine benthic invertebrates applied to the selection of priority conservation areas. Diversity and Distributions 8: 129-145

Bakus G, Arthur R, Ekaratne S, Jinendradasa S (2000) India and Sri Lanka. In: McClanahan T, Sheppard CRC, Obura D (eds) Coral Reefs of the Indian Ocean. Their ecology and conservation,Oxford, UK, pp 295-324

Beck MW, Odaya M (2001) Ecoregional planning in marine environments: identifying priority sites for conservation in the northern Gulf of Mexico. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 11: 235-242

Bolton JJ, Clerck OD, John DM (2003) Related initiatives: Seaweed diversity patterns in Sub-Saharan Africa Marine Biodiversity in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Known and the Unknown., Cape Town, South Africa, pp 310

Bolton JJ, Leliaert F, Clerck OD, Anderson RJ, Stegenga H, Engledow HE, Coppejans E (2004) Where is the western limit of the tropical Indian Ocean seaweed flora? An analysis of intertidal seaweed biogeography on the east coast of South Africa. Marine Biology 144: 51-59

Boschi E (2000) Species of Decapod Crustaceans and their distribution in the American marine zoogeographic provinces. Revista de Investigaci��n y Desarrollo Pesquero 13: 7-136

Boschi E, Gavio M (2005) On the distribution of decapod crustaceans from the Magellan Biogeographic Province and the Antarctic region. Scientia Marina 69 (Suppl. 2): 195-200

Briggs JC (1974) Marine Zoogeography. McGraw-Hill, New York, USA

Briggs JC (2004) A marine center of origin: reality and conservation. In: Lomolino MV, Heaney LR (eds) Frontiers of Biogeography: new directions in the geography of nature. Sinauer Associates, Inc., Sunderland, Massachusetts, pp 255-269

Bustamante RH, Branch GM (1996) Large scale patterns and trophic structure of Southern African rocky shores: the roles of geographic variation and wave exposure. Journal of Biogeography 23: 339-351

Castro B, de Miranda L (1998) Physical oceanography of the Western Atlantic continental shelf located between 4��N and 34��S. In: Robinson A, Brink K (eds) The Sea. The Global Coastal Ocean - regional studies and syntheses. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, pp 209-251

Ch'ng KL (1993) South East Asian Marine Region. Report from an IUCN/CNPPA working group of representatives from South East Asian nations. Ministry of Science, Technology and the Environment, Malaysia, Malaysia, pp 18

Commonwealth of Australia (2005) National Marine Bioregionalisation of Australia. Summary. Department of Environment and Heritage, Canberra

Dinter W (2001) Biogeography of the OSPAR Maritime Area. A synopsis of biogeographical distribution patterns described for the North-East Atlantic. Federal Agency for Nature Conservation, Bonn, Germany

Ekman S (1953) Zoogeography of the Sea. Sidgwick and Jackso, London

Floeter SR, Behrens MD, Ferreira CEL, Paddack MJ, Horn MH (2005 in press) Geographical gradients of marine herbivorous fishes: patterns and processes. Marine Biology

Floeter SR, Gasparini JL (2000) The southwestern Atlantic reef fish fauna: composition and zoogeographic patterns. Journal of Fish Biology 56: 1099-1114

Floeter SR, Guimar��es RZP, Rocha LA, Ferreira CEL, Rangel CA, Gasparini JL (2001) Geographic variation in reef-fish assemblages along the Brazilian coast. Global Ecology and Biogeography 10: 423-431

Gosliner TM (2002) Biodiversity, endemism, and evolution of opisthobranch gastropods on Indo-Pacific coral reefs. Proceedings of the Ninth International Coral Reef Symposium, Bali 2: 937-940

Green A, Mous P (2004) Delineating the Coral Triangle, its ecoregions and functional seascapes. Based on an expert workshop, held at the Southeast Asia Center for Marine Protected Areas, Bali, Indonesia (April 30 - May 2, 2003). Version 2.1 (November 2004). The Nature Conservancy, Southeast Asia Center for Marine Protected Areas, Sanur, Bali, Indonesia., pp 25

Green A, Sheppard S (2005) Delineating the Eastern Side of the Coral Triangle, its ecoregions and functional seascapes. The Nature Conservancy, pp 14

Green EP, Short FT (2003) World Atlas of Seagrasses. University of California Press, Berkeley, USA, pp 298

Gyory J, Bischof B, Mariano AJ, Ryan EH (2004) Ocean Surface Currents: The Angola Current

Hardman-Mountford N, Koranteng K, Price ARG (2000) The Gulf of Guinea Large Marine Ecosystem. In: Sheppard C (ed) Seas at the Millennium: an environmental evaluation. Elsevier Science Ltd., Netherlands, pp 773-796

Hutchison C (2005) The geological framework. In: Gupta A (ed) Physical Geography of Southeast Asia. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, pp 3-23

ICES (2004) Information and advice about appropriate eco-regions for the implementation of an ecosystem approach in European waters. In: ICES (ed) Report of the ICES Advisory Committee on Fishery Management and Advisory Committee on Ecosystems, 2004. International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), Copenhagen, pp 115-131

Kankaanp���� P, Huntington H, Baldursson S, Sippola A-L, Kaitala S, Z��ckler C, Gunn A, Mirutenko M, Prokosch P, Tishkov A (2001) Arctic Flora and Fauna: status and conservation. Edita, Helsinki, pp 272

Kelleher G, Bleakley C, Wells S (1995) A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas. Volume 1: Antarctic, Arctic, Mediterranean, Northwest Atlantic, Northeast Atlantic and Baltic. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, The World Bank and the World Conservation Union (IUCN), Washington, D.C., USA, pp 219

Kelleher G, Bleakley C, Wells S (1995) A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas. Volume 2: Wider Caribbean, West Africa and South Atlantic. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, The World Bank and the World Conservation Union (IUCN), Washington, D.C., USA, pp 93

Kelleher G, Bleakley C, Wells S (1995) A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas. Volume 3: Central Indian Ocean, Arabian Seas, East Africa and East Asian Seas. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, The World Bank and the World Conservation Union (IUCN), Washington, D.C., USA, pp 146

Kelleher G, Bleakley C, Wells S (1995) A Global Representative System of Marine Protected Areas. Volume 4: South Pacific, Northeast Pacific, Northwest Pacific, Southeast Pacific and Australia/New Zealand. The Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, The World Bank and the World Conservation Union (IUCN), Washington, D.C., USA, pp 212

Kemp JM (2005) Biogeographic patterns and marine biodiversity in the Arabian / North-west Indian Ocean region. Unpublished

Lourie SA (2006) Report on challenges in biogeographic classification of Sumatra/Java and the Eastern Indian Ocean. Unpublished

Lyne V, Last P, Scott R, Dunn J, Peters D, Ward T (1998) Large Marine Domains of Australia's EEZ. CSIRO Marine Research and Department of Environment and Land Management, Tasmania. Report commissioned by Environment Australia

Mahon R, Brown SK, Zwanenburg KCT, D. Bruce Atkinson, Buja KR, Claflin L, Howell GD, Monaco ME, O'Boyle RN, Sinclair M (1998) Assemblages and biogeography of demersal fishes of the east coast of North America. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Science 55: 1704-1738

McCoy ED, Heck KL (1976) Biogeography of corals, seagrasses and mangroves: an alternative to the center of origin concept. Systematic Zoology 25: 201-210

Meyer CP, Geller JB, Paulay G (2005) Fine scale endemism on coral reefs: archipelagic differentiation in turbinid gastropods. Evolution 59: 113-125

Montiel A, Gerdes D, Arntz W (2005) Distributional patterns of shallow-water polychaetes in the Magellan region: a zoogeographical and ecological synopsis. Scientia Marina 69 (Suppl. 2): 123-133

Myers RF (1999) Micronesian Reef Fishes: a comprehensive guide to the coral reef fishes of Micronesia. Coral Graphics, Territory of Guam, USA

Omori M, Takahashi K, Moriwake N, Osada K, Kimura T, Kinoshita F, Maso S, Shimoike K, Hibino K (2004) Coral Reefs of Japan. Ministry of Environment, Tokyo

Pauly D, Christensen V (1993) Stratified models of Large Marine Ecosystems: a general approach and an application to the South China Sea. In: Sherman K, Alexander LM, Gold BD (eds) Large Marine Ecosystems: Stress, Mitigation, and Sustainability. AAAS Press, Washington, DC, pp 148-174

PICES (2004) Marine Ecosystems of the North Pacific. North Pacific Marine Science Organization, Sidney, B.C., Canada

Powles H, Vendette V, Siron R, O'Boyle B (2004) Proceedings of the Canadian Marine Ecoregions Workshop. Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Ottowa

Randall JE (1998) Zoogeography of shore fishes of the Indo-Pacific Region. Zoological Studies 37: 227-268

Roberts CM, McLean CJ, Allen GR, Hawkins JP, McAllister DE, Mittermeier C, Schueler F, Spalding M, Veron JEN, Wells F, Vynne C, Werner T (2002) Marine biodiversity hotspots and conservation priorities for tropical reefs. Science 295: 1280-1284

Robertson DR, Grove JS, McCosker JE (2004) Tropical transpacific shore fishes. Pacific Science 58: 507-565

Robinson AR, Brink KH (1998) The Global Coastal Ocean, Regional Studies and Syntheses The Sea: Ideas and Observation on Progress in the Study of the Seas. Volume 11. John Wiley and Sons, New York, pp 1062

Robinson AR, Brink KH (2006) The Global Coastal Ocean, Interdisciplinary Regional Studies and Syntheses The Sea: Ideas and Observation on Progress in the Study of the Seas. Volume 14. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, USA, pp 1567

SEC (2005) 1290. Proposal for a�� Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council establishing a Framework for Community Action in the field of Marine Environmental Policy (Marine Strategy Directive). Brussels 24.10.2005, COM (2005) 505 final, 2005/0211 (COD).

Sheppard C (2000) Seas at the Millennium: An Environmental Evaluation. Volume 1. Regional Chapters: Europe, The Americas and West Africa. Elsevier Science Ltd., Oxford, UK

Sheppard C (2000) Seas at the Millennium: An Environmental Evaluation. Volume 2. Regional Chapters: The Indian Ocean to the Pacific. Elsevier Science Ltd., Oxford, UK

Sherman K, Alexander LM (1989) Biomass Yields and Geography of Large Marine Ecosystems. Westview Press, Boulder

Sink K, Branch GM (2005) Biogeographic patterns in rocky intertidal communities in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. African Journal of Marine Science 27: 81-96

Smith ML, Carpenter KE, Waller RW (2002) An introduction to the oceanography, geology, biogeography, and fisheries of the tropical and subtropical western central Atlantic. In: Carpenter KE (ed) The Living Resources of the Western Central Atlantic. Volume 1. Introduction, molluscs, crustaceans, hagfishes, sharks, batoid fishes and chimaeras. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, pp 1-23

Spalding MD, Blasco F, Field CD (1997) World Mangrove Atlas. International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, Japan

Spalding MD, Ravilious C, Green EP (2001) World Atlas of Coral Reefs. University of California Press, Berkeley, California

Spencer T, Spalding MD (2005) Coral reefs of Southeast Asia: controls, patterns and human impacts. In: Gupta A (ed) Physical Geography of Southeast Asia. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, pp 402-427

Springer VG (1982) Pacific Plate Biogeography, with Special Reference to Shorefishes. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC

Steneck RS, Graham MH, Bourque BJ, Corbett D, Erlandson JM, Estes JA, Tegner MJ (2002) Kelp forest ecosystems: biodiversity, stability, resilience and future. Environmental Conservation 29: 436-459

Sullivan Sealey K, Bustamante G (1999) Setting Geographic Priorities for Marine Conservation in Latin America and the Caribbean. The Nature Conservancy, Arlington, Virginia, USA

Thackway R, Cresswell ID (1998) Interim Marine and Coastal Regionalisation for Australia: an ecosystem-based classification for marine and coastal�� environments. Version 3.3. Environment Australia, Commonwealth Department of the Environment., Canberra

Turpie JK, Beckley LE, Katua SM (2000) Biogeography and the selection of priority areas for conservation of South African coastal fishes. Biological Conservation 92: 59-72

van den Hoek C (1984) World-wide latitudinal and longitudinal seaweed distribution patterns and their possible causes as illustrated by the distribution of Rhodophytan genera. Helgola��nder Meeresuntersuchungen 38: 227-257

Venkataraman K, Wafar M (2005) Coastal and Marine Biodiversity of India. Indian Journal of Marine Sciences 34: 57-75

Veron JEN (2000) Corals of the World. Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Australia

Wallace CC (2002) Journey to the heart of the centre: origins of high marine faunal diversity in the central Indo-Pacific from the perspective of an acropologist. Proceedings of the Ninth International Coral Reef Symposium, Bali 1: 33-39

Wallace CC, Muir PR (2005) Biodiversity of the Indian Ocean from the perspective of staghorn corals (Acropora spp). Indian Journal of Marine Sciences 34: 42-49

Walls K (1994) The New Zealand Experience in Developing a Marine Biogeographic Regionalisation. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority

Wells FE (2002) Centres of species richness and endemism of shallow water marine molluscs in the tropical Indo-West Pacific. Proceedings of the Ninth International Coral Reef Symposium, Bali 2: 941-945

Wilkinson T, Bezaury-Creel J, Hourigan T, Wiken E, Madden C, Padilla M, Agardy T, Herrmann H (2005 near final draft) Spaces: North American Marine Ecoregions. Commission for Environmental Cooperation, Montreal, Canada

Wong P (2005) The coastal environment of Southeast Asia. In: Gupta A (ed) Physical Geography of Southeast Asia. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK, pp 177-192

WWF (1999) WWF Africa Ecoregion Assessment Workshop participants notes. WWF-US. Unpublished

WWF (2004) The Eastern African Marine Ecoregion Vision: A large scale conservation approach to the management of biodiversity. World Wide Fund for Nature, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.

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